Serine protease inhibitors (serpins) are a large superfamily of proteins that regulate critical proteolytic pathways by inhibiting serine proteases. Tick-encoded serpins are thought to play a vital role in the feeding process. To determine the relationship of Amblyomma americanum serpin 6 (S6) to tick feeding regulation, this study attempted to define the biological significance of this molecule through transcription and protein expression profiles, biochemical characterization of recombinant s6 (rS6), and the effects of in vivo post-transcriptional gene silencing on blood meal acquisition and fecundity. Transcriptional analysis revealed that S6 mRNA is ubiquitously expressed in unfed and partially fed ticks through the initial 5 days of the feeding period. S6 mRNA abundance in dissected tick organs showed a 3.7, 3.4, and 1.7- fold upregulation from 24 h to 96 h in the salivary gland (SG), midgut (MG) and the carcass (CA) remnant after removal of SG, MG respectively before downregulating at 120 h. Native S6 protein is downregulated in response to tick feeding, with correlation between transcription and protein expression profiles only consistent from the unfed to 48 h. Similarly, S6 protein expression in dissected female tick tissues is reduced as feeding progresses, with S6 being identified in SG, MG, ovary (OV), and CA from 24 h until 72 h. Biochemical characterization of S6 was not achieved, as rS6 did not form an irreversible complex when incubated with chymotrypsin or trypsin. Although complete silencing of S6 and S6/S17 mRNA was achieved, post-transcriptional gene knockdown had no effect on tick feeding efficiency or fecundity. These findings have been discussed in regards to the development of a vaccine against A. americanum and necessary future studies have been suggested for further characterization and assessment of biological significance.

G-NNACI, a Naja naja atra chymotrypsin inhibitor consists of 57 amino acid residues cross-linked by three disulfide bridges and belongs to the Kunitz/BPTI superfamily, has been successfully cloned and expressed in our laboratory. Since snake venom non-neurotoxic Kunitz/BPTI inhibitors are most conserved in the core and in the N-terminal surface area, Ala-screening mutagenesis, deletion and Domain swapping on the N-terminus were carried out in this study to assess the role of N-terminus in G-NNACI. G-NNACI mutants with single amino acid substitution and deleted mutants were prepared. The secondary structure of all mutated proteins did not significantly alter as evidenced by CD spectra. Although all mutants are found to be functionally active as an inhibitor, their inhibitory potency against chymotrypsin differed. In contrast to G-NNACI and other mutants, R1A¡BP2A and ¡µN3 mutants had a propensity to alter their disulfide linkages under basic conditions. The results of thermal and urea denaturation suggested that amino acid substitution and deletion at the N-terminus lead to a change in the structural stability of G-NNACI. Consequently, the inhibitory potency of G-NNACI mutants along with time was affected. B chain of

BEZERRA, Lady Clarissa Brito da Rocha. Purificação, caracterização bioquímica e potencial quimiopreventivo de um novo inibidor de quimotripsina de sementes de Enterolobium contortisiliquum (Vell.) Morong. 2014. 110 f. Tese (Doutorado em bioquímica)- Universidade Federal do Ceará, Fortaleza-CE, 2014. / Submitted by Elineudson Ribeiro (elineudsonr@gmail.com) on 2016-09-02T12:04:52Z No. of bitstreams: 1 2014_tese_lcbrbezerra.pdf: 2595573 bytes, checksum: 6f4356b55ad7ccae8f05a1adf548f991 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Jairo Viana (jairo@ufc.br) on 2016-09-05T20:31:04Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 2014_tese_lcbrbezerra.pdf: 2595573 bytes, checksum: 6f4356b55ad7ccae8f05a1adf548f991 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-09-05T20:31:04Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 2014_tese_lcbrbezerra.pdf: 2595573 bytes, checksum: 6f4356b55ad7ccae8f05a1adf548f991 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2014 / Protease inhibitors are proteins with the intrinsic ability to inhibit catalytic activity of enzymes and are very common in plant seeds. Proteases play a major role in development of several diseases. The control of their activity by protease inhibitors have increased interest on these molecules as chemopreventive agents, specially for cancer. The anticarcinogenic effects of legume seeds present in human diet as well as those of underexploited plant species have been extensively investigated. This study aimed to purify, perform biochemical characterization and evaluate the in vitro chemopreventive potential of protease inhibitors from Enterolobium contortisiliquum seeds upon human colorectal adenocarcinoma cells. Two protease inhibitors were purified and named EcCI and EcTI. By means of N-terminal sequence analysis, EcCI was identified as a Kunitz type inhibitor. EcTI was identified, by means of peptide mass fingerprinting and N-terminal sequence analyses, as the same EcTI purified previously (NCBI Protein BLAST; access number: sp|P86451.1|ITRY_ENTCO). The molecular masses of the two inhibitors determined by means of SDS-PAGE and mass spectrometry are, respectively, 18.5 kDa and 19,710.4 Da (EcCI); 20.2 kDa and 19,813.22 Da (EcTI). Both inhibitors consist of two polypeptide chains and have several isoforms with acidic pIs, ranging from 5 to 6. Towards chymotrypsin, EcCI is a non competitive inhibitor and shows ki of 8 x 10-8 M, while EcTI is a competitive inhibitor with ki of 48 x 10-8 M. Towards trypsin, EcTI shows non competitive inhibition and ki of 2.8 x 10-8 M. EcCI and EcTI show high (93%) and moderate (38%) chymotrypsin inhibition and EcTI was also able to strongly inhibit trypsin (100%). EcCI and EcTI showed high leukocyte elastase inhibition (85 and 75%), respectively, and inhibited pancreatic elastase weakly (about 10%). Neither of them was able to inhibit papain nor bromelain. Both inhibitors are functionally stable under wide temperature range (from 37 to 70 °C – EcCI; from 37 to 60 °C – EcTI), pH (from 2 to 12) and DTT concentration (from 1 to 10 mM – EcCI; from 1 to 100 mM – EcTI). Both EcCI and EcTI were able to inhibit HT29 colorectal adenocarcinoma cells with IC50 of 35.5 and 20.4 x 10-6 M, respectively. These results clearly indicate that these are molecules with interesting biotechnological features and very promising tools as chemopreventive agents. / Inibidores de proteases são proteínas que inibem a atividade catalítica de enzimas, sendo bastante comuns em sementes de plantas. As proteases desempenham papéis centrais no desenvolvimento de muitas doenças. O controle de sua atividade realizado por inibidores de proteases despertou o interesse sobre estas moléculas como agentes quimiopreventivos, especialmente sobre o câncer. Os efeitos anticarcinogênicos das sementes de leguminosas presentes comumente na dieta, bem como de espécies vegetais subexploradas, têm sido extensivamente investigados. O objetivo deste trabalho foi purificar, caracterizar bioquimicamente e avaliar o potencial quimiopreventivo in vitro de inibidores de proteases de sementes de Enterolobium contortisiliquum, utilizando como modelo células de adenocarcinoma colorretal humano. Foram purificados dois inibidores de proteases denominados EcCI e EcTI. Através da sequência N-terminal, EcCI foi identificado como um inibidor da família Kunitz. EcTI foi identificado, por meio de peptide mass fingerprinting e por análise da sequência N-terminal, como aquele descrito previamente na literatura (NCBI Protein BLAST; número de acesso: sp|P86451.1|ITRY_ENTCO). Suas massas moleculares determinadas por SDS-PAGE e espectrometria de massas são, respectivamente, 18,5 kDa e 19.710,4 Da (EcCI); 20,2 kDa e 19.813,22 Da (EcTI). Ambos os inibidores são formados de duas subunidades proteicas e apresentam isoformas cujos pI’s são ácidos, entre 5 e 6. Frente a quimotripsina, EcCI é um inibidor não competitivo e apresenta ki de 8 x 10-8 M, enquanto EcTI é inibidor competitivo com ki de 48 x 10-8 M. Frente à tripsina, EcTI apresenta inibição não competitiva e ki de 2,8 x 10-8 M. EcCI e EcTI apresentam atividade inibitória de quimotripsina alta (93%) e moderada (38%), respectivamente. Apenas EcTI foi capaz de inibir a tripsina (100%). EcCI e EcTI apresentam alta atividade inibitória de elastase neutrofílica (85 e 75%, respectivamente). Os dois inibidores inibiram sutilmente a elastase pancreática (ca. de 10%) e nenhum foi capaz de inibir papaína e bromelaína. Os dois inibidores apresentam alta estabilidade à variação de temperatura (de 37 a 70 °C para EcCI e de 37 a 60 °C para EcTI), pH (2 a 12) e concentração de DTT (de 1 a 10 mM para EcCI e de 1 a 100 mM para EcTI). EcCI e EcTI inibiram a proliferação de células de adenocarcinoma colorretal humano da linhagem HT29 com CI50 de 35,5 e 20,4 x 10-6 M, respectivamente, indicando que esses inibidores apresentam bom potencial quimiopreventivo e, portanto, são moléculas bastante interessantes do ponto de vista biotecnológico.

CoordenaÃÃo de AperfeiÃoamento de Pessoal de NÃvel Superior / Protease inhibitors are proteins with the intrinsic ability to inhibit catalytic activity of enzymes and are very common in plant seeds. Proteases play a major role in development of several diseases. The control of their activity by protease inhibitors have increased interest on these molecules as chemopreventive agents, specially for cancer. The anticarcinogenic effects of legume seeds present in human diet as well as those of underexploited plant species have been extensively investigated. This study aimed to purify, perform biochemical characterization and evaluate the in vitro chemopreventive potential of protease inhibitors from Enterolobium contortisiliquum seeds upon human colorectal adenocarcinoma cells. Two protease inhibitors were purified and named EcCI and EcTI. By means of N-terminal sequence analysis, EcCI was identified as a Kunitz type inhibitor. EcTI was identified, by means of peptide mass fingerprinting and N-terminal sequence analyses, as the same EcTI purified previously (NCBI Protein BLAST; access number: sp|P86451.1|ITRY_ENTCO). The molecular masses of the two inhibitors determined by means of SDS-PAGE and mass spectrometry are, respectively, 18.5 kDa and 19,710.4 Da (EcCI); 20.2 kDa and 19,813.22 Da (EcTI). Both inhibitors consist of two polypeptide chains and have several isoforms with acidic pIs, ranging from 5 to 6. Towards chymotrypsin, EcCI is a non competitive inhibitor and shows ki of 8 x 10-8 M, while EcTI is a competitive inhibitor with ki of 48 x 10-8 M. Towards trypsin, EcTI shows non competitive inhibition and ki of 2.8 x 10-8 M. EcCI and EcTI show high (93%) and moderate (38%) chymotrypsin inhibition and EcTI was also able to strongly inhibit trypsin (100%). EcCI and EcTI showed high leukocyte elastase inhibition (85 and 75%), respectively, and inhibited pancreatic elastase weakly (about 10%). Neither of them was able to inhibit papain nor bromelain. Both inhibitors are functionally stable under wide temperature range (from 37 to 70 ÂC â EcCI; from 37 to 60 ÂC â EcTI), pH (from 2 to 12) and DTT concentration (from 1 to 10 mM â EcCI; from 1 to 100 mM â EcTI). Both EcCI and EcTI were able to inhibit HT29 colorectal adenocarcinoma cells with IC50 of 35.5 and 20.4 x 10-6 M, respectively. These results clearly indicate that these are molecules with interesting biotechnological features and very promising tools as chemopreventive agents. / Inibidores de proteases sÃo proteÃnas que inibem a atividade catalÃtica de enzimas, sendo bastante comuns em sementes de plantas. As proteases desempenham papÃis centrais no desenvolvimento de muitas doenÃas. O controle de sua atividade realizado por inibidores de proteases despertou o interesse sobre estas molÃculas como agentes quimiopreventivos, especialmente sobre o cÃncer. Os efeitos anticarcinogÃnicos das sementes de leguminosas presentes comumente na dieta, bem como de espÃcies vegetais subexploradas, tÃm sido extensivamente investigados. O objetivo deste trabalho foi purificar, caracterizar bioquimicamente e avaliar o potencial quimiopreventivo in vitro de inibidores de proteases de sementes de Enterolobium contortisiliquum, utilizando como modelo cÃlulas de adenocarcinoma colorretal humano. Foram purificados dois inibidores de proteases denominados EcCI e EcTI. AtravÃs da sequÃncia N-terminal, EcCI foi identificado como um inibidor da famÃlia Kunitz. EcTI foi identificado, por meio de peptide mass fingerprinting e por anÃlise da sequÃncia N-terminal, como aquele descrito previamente na literatura (NCBI Protein BLAST; nÃmero de acesso: sp|P86451.1|ITRY_ENTCO). Suas massas moleculares determinadas por SDS-PAGE e espectrometria de massas sÃo, respectivamente, 18,5 kDa e 19.710,4 Da (EcCI); 20,2 kDa e 19.813,22 Da (EcTI). Ambos os inibidores sÃo formados de duas subunidades proteicas e apresentam isoformas cujos pIâs sÃo Ãcidos, entre 5 e 6. Frente a quimotripsina, EcCI à um inibidor nÃo competitivo e apresenta ki de 8 x 10-8 M, enquanto EcTI à inibidor competitivo com ki de 48 x 10-8 M. Frente à tripsina, EcTI apresenta inibiÃÃo nÃo competitiva e ki de 2,8 x 10-8 M. EcCI e EcTI apresentam atividade inibitÃria de quimotripsina alta (93%) e moderada (38%), respectivamente. Apenas EcTI foi capaz de inibir a tripsina (100%). EcCI e EcTI apresentam alta atividade inibitÃria de elastase neutrofÃlica (85 e 75%, respectivamente). Os dois inibidores inibiram sutilmente a elastase pancreÃtica (ca. de 10%) e nenhum foi capaz de inibir papaÃna e bromelaÃna. Os dois inibidores apresentam alta estabilidade à variaÃÃo de temperatura (de 37 a 70 ÂC para EcCI e de 37 a 60 ÂC para EcTI), pH (2 a 12) e concentraÃÃo de DTT (de 1 a 10 mM para EcCI e de 1 a 100 mM para EcTI). EcCI e EcTI inibiram a proliferaÃÃo de cÃlulas de adenocarcinoma colorretal humano da linhagem HT29 com CI50 de 35,5 e 20,4 x 10-6 M, respectivamente, indicando que esses inibidores apresentam bom potencial quimiopreventivo e, portanto, sÃo molÃculas bastante interessantes do ponto de vista biotecnolÃgico.

There is currently no standardized treatment of COVID-19. Despite several vaccines being deployed, the need for an effective treatment in hospitalized patients is heavily sought after. In this systematic review, six clinical trials were analyzed for their findings on the effect of commercially available anti-viral protease inhibitors in treatment of COVID-19. The aim of the study was to evaluate the effect on the hospitalization period and mortality of patients suffering from COVID-19 and if HIVprotease inhibitors could be repositioned to treat COVID-19 in combinational therapy. The findings suggest that protease inhibitors targeting the hepatitis C virus (HCV) proteases could potentially beeffective at reducing the hospitalization period and that the effect can be further enhanced by using them in combination with drugs targeting the RNA polymerases. Further studies are needed confirm these findings. Lopinavir/ritonavir which was the most common protease inhibitor included in the study did not reduce the hospitalization period or the mortality significantly. It is unclear whether the HCV protease inhibitors could reduce mortality. Further studies regarding this outcome are warranted.

Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2013. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Although antiretroviral treatment decreases HIV-AIDS morbidity/mortality, long-term effects include onset of insulin resistance and cardiovascular diseases. Increased oxidative stress and dysregulation of the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) are implicated in protease-inhibitor (PI)-mediated cardio-metabolic pathophysiology. We hypothesized that PI treatment (Lopinavir/Ritonavir) elevates myocardial oxidative stress and concomitantly inhibits the UPS, thereby attenuating cardiac function. Lopinavir/Ritonavir was dissolved in 1% ethanol (vehicle) and injected into mini-osmotic pumps that were surgically implanted into Wistar rats for eight weeks vs. vehicle and sham controls. Subsequently, we evaluated metabolic parameters and heart function (ex vivo and in vivo methods) at baseline and following ischemia-reperfusion. PI-treated rats exhibited weight gain, increased serum LDL-cholesterol, higher tissue triglycerides (heart, liver), but no evidence of insulin resistance. It also upregulated hepatic gene expression of acetyl-CoA carboxylase β and 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA-reductase, key regulators of fatty acid oxidation and cholesterol synthesis, respectively. Further, PI-treated hearts displayed impaired UPS, increased superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity and unaltered superoxide levels, and elevated peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ coactivator 1-α (PGC-1α) peptide levels. Perfusion data revealed contractile dysfunction at baseline and following ischemia-reperfusion, while post-ischemic hearts exhibited decreased ATPase specific activity vs. matched controls. Early changes initiated by PI treatment resemble the metabolic syndrome and reflect a pre-atherogenic profile. Moreover, the effects of PIs on cardiac contractile function may in part be triggered by impaired UPS activity together with strain on the mitochondrial energetic system. Our study alerts to cardio-metabolic side effects of PI treatment and raises the question of the most appropriate co-therapies for patients on chronic antiretroviral treatment. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Alhoewel anti-retrovirale behandeling MIV-VIGS morbiditeit/mortaliteit verlaag, bestaan daar langtermyn effekte soos die aanvang van insulienweerstandigheid en kardiovaskulêre siektes. Verhoogde oksidatiewe stres en wanregulering van die ubikwitien-proteosoomsisteem (UPS) word geïmpliseer met protease-inhibeerder (PI) gemediëerde kardio-metaboliese patofisiologie. Ons hipotetiseer dat PI behandeling (Lopinavir/Ritonavir) miokardiale oksidatiewe stres verhoog, en gevolglik die UPS inhibeer waardeur dit kardiale funksie verander. Lopinavir/Ritonavir is in 1% etanol (draer) opgelos en in ‘n mini-osmotiese pomp ingespuit wat chirurgies in Wistar rottes ingeplant is vir agt weke vs. draer en valskontroles. Gevolglik het ons die metabolise parameters en hartfunksie (ex vivo en in vivo metodes) op basislyn en na afloop van ischemie-reperfusie ondersoek. PI-behandelde rotte het ‘n toename in massa getoon asook verhoogde serum LDL-cholesterol, hoër weefseltrigliseriede (hart, lewer), maar geen bewys van insulienweerstandigheid nie. Dit het ook hepatiese asetielko-ensiem A karboksilase β en 3-hidrokise-3-metielglutariel KoA reduktase geenuidrukking opwaarts gereguleer, wat sleutel reguleerders van vetsuuroksidasie en cholesterolsintese onderskeidelik is. Verder, het PI-behandelde harte ingeperkte UPS, verhoogde SOD aktiwiteit en onveranderde superoksiedvlakke vertoon, asook verhoogde peroksisoomproliferator-geaktiveerde reseptor-γ ko-aktiveerder 1-α (PGC-1α) peptiedvlakke. Perfusie data toon kontraktiele wanfunskionering gedurende basislyn en na afloop van ischemie-reperfussie, terwyl post-ischemiese harte verlaagde ATPase spesifieke aktiwiteit vs gepaarde kontrole vertoon. Vroeë veranderinge wat deur PI behandeling veroorsaak word, kom ooreen met die metabolise sindroom en reflekteer op ‘n pre-aterogeniese profiel. Bowendien kan die effekte van PIs op kardiale kontraktiele funksie deels veroorsaak word deur die ingeperkte UPS aktiwiteit tesame met die las op die mitochondriale energie sisteem. Ons studie waarsku teen kardio-metaboliese newe effekte met PI behandeling en rig die vraag; wat die mees gepaste ko-behandeling vir pasiënte op chroniese anti-retrovirale behandeling is.

Natural antimicrobials are peptides that are essential components of the innate immune system, providing broad-spectrum protection against bacteria, yeasts and some viruses. In addition to their innate immune activity, they exhibit properties suggesting they interact with the adaptive immune system. These functions imply they may be of particular importance in pregnancy. Intrauterine infection is responsible for approximately one third of cases of preterm labour, and normal labour is considered an inflammatory process, associated with leukocyte invasion of the uterine tissues and increased cytokine production. Little is known, however, about natural antimicrobial expression in pregnant reproductive tract. The aim of this thesis was thus to characterize natural antimicrobial production in pregnancy. The study focused on two main areas - the lower genital tract, comprised of the vagina and cervix; and the innermost fetal membrane, the amnion. In the lower genital tract, levels of natural antimicrobials were determined in samples of cervicovaginal secretions collected from pregnant women, using enzyme linked immunosorbance assay (ELISA). In addition Taqman quantitative PCR and ELISAs were used to investigate natural antimicrobial production by cell lines derived from endocervical, ectocervical and vaginal epithelium. It was found that elafin and secretory leucocyte protease inhibitor (SLPI) were found at high concentrations in cervicovaginal secretions, but levels were diminished in women with the common vaginal infection bacterial vaginosis (p<0.05). Cells derived from the vaginal epithelium expressed greater amounts of elafin than cervically derived cells. However, elafin and SLPI production could be stimulated in endocervical cells by the bacterial product lipopolysaccharide, a response that was not seen in the vaginal cell line. Natural antimicrobial production in the amnion was examined in tissue explants and primary cultured amnion cells, using a combination of Taqman PCR and ELISAs. In addition, cDNA microarray was carried out to investigate factors controlling amniotic antimicrobial production, and the involvement of signalling pathways was studied using specific pathway inhibitors. It was shown that the amnion expressed five antimicrobials: human beta defensins (HBD) 1, 2 and 3, SLPI and elafin. Expression of HBD2 was significantly upregulated following normal labour (p<0.05), with production in primary amnion epithelial cells dramatically increased by IL-1ß. The pattern of HBD2 expression in response to IL-1ß was biphasic, which suggested involvement of a secondary gene product. Several putative influential factors were identified by cDNA micorarray, including the NF-kappaB cofactor NFkappaBinhibitorζ. Its relationship to HBD2 was explored. The involvement of both NF-kappaB and mitogen activated protein (MAP) kinase p38 signalling appeared crucial in the response. This work has shown that natural antimicrobials are expressed by both the lower genital tract, where infections that are associated with preterm labour originate, and in the amnion, which is the fetus last line of defence to infection. They may have an important role in the prevention of infection associated preterm labour. Further characterization of these responses may increase understanding of the physiology, and pathophysiology of labour, and lead to strategies for the prevention of premature delivery.

Dendritic cells (DC) are sentinels of the immune system that display an extraordinary capacity to present antigen to naïve T cells and initiate immune responses. DCs are distributed throughout the lungs in the conducting airways of the tracheobronchial tree and in the parenchymal lung, and play a pivotal role in controlling the immune response to inhaled antigens. The respiratory surface is continually exposed to potentially injurious particulates and pathogenic organisms, to which tightly regulated innate and adaptive immunological responses are made. The airways are usually sterile in healthy individuals. However, patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and cystic fibrosis (CF) have increased susceptibility to microbial infections and increased neutrophil elastase (NE) in lung secretions. This thesis was designed to test the hypotheses that; (i) excess NE may result in a dysregulation of lung DCs function in pulmonary chronic diseases, and (ii) the natural NE inhibitors in the respiratory system are able to rescue the NE-mediated dysregulation of DCs and potentially enhance their antigen presenting activity. The data in this thesis demonstrate that purified human NE down-regulated murine bone marrow (BM)-derived DC co-stimulatory molecules (CSM; CD40, CD80 and CD86), which was due to its proteolytic activity. NE-treated LPS-matured DCs were less efficient at presenting ovalbumin (OVA) peptide to naïve OVAspecific transgenic (D011.10) T cells. In addition, immature DCs (iDC) simultaneously treated with LPS and NE failed to mature fully and produced significantly less IL-12 and TNF-α than DCs matured in the presence of LPS alone. Similarly, treatment of mature DC (mDC) with pooled and individual COPD and CF sputum samples caused a reduction in CD80 and CD86 levels (but not CD40) which positively correlated with the NE concentration present in the samples. The demonstration that NE could adversely affect DC phenotype and function suggested that augmentation of NE inhibitors could reverse this process and preserve DC function in inflammatory microenvironments. Over-expression of an NE specific inhibitor (elafin) in the lungs of mice (using either replication-deficient adenovirus [Ad] or elafin transgenic [eTg] mice) increased the number (immunofluorescence) and activation status (flow cytometric measurement) of CD11c+/MHCII+ lung DCs in in vivo models. Replication-deficient Ad vectors encoding NE inhibitors, namely elafin, secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor (SLPI) and α1-protease inhibitor (α1-PI), were also used to infect DCs in vitro, to further study the effect of these NE-inhibitors on DCs in isolation. These findings suggest that purified NE and NE-containing lung inflammatory secretions are powerful down-regulators of DC maturation, resulting in reduced capacity of these potent APCs to efficiently present antigens; whereas, NE inhibitors could boost immunity by increasing the activation state and/or number of DCs.

The use of palladium-catalyzed reactions to introduce new carbon-carbon bonds is a fundamental synthetic strategy that has been widely embraced due to its high chemo- and regioselectivity and functional group tolerance. In this context, Pd(0)-catalyzed aminocarbonylations using Mo(CO)6 instead of toxic and gaseous CO and with allylamine as the nucleophile were investigated. The aminocarbonylated product dominated over the Mizoroki-Heck product, and (hetero)aryl iodides, bromides and chlorides gave N-allylbenzamides in good yields. In this thesis improvements to an existing protocol for the Pd(II)-catalyzed synthesis of aryl ketones from five benzoic acids and a variety of nitriles are also presented. Addition of TFA improved the yields and employing THF as solvent enabled the use of solid nitriles, and the aryl ketones were isolated in good yields. The pandemic of HIV infection is one of the greatest public health issues of our time and approximately 35.3 million people worldwide are living with HIV. There are currently many drugs on the market targeting various parts of the viral reproduction cycle, but the problems of resistance warrant the search for new drugs. HIV-1 protease makes the virus mature into infectious particles. In this thesis a new type of HIV-1 protease inhibitor (PI) is presented, based on two of the PIs on the market, atazanavir and indinavir, but it has a tertiary alcohol, as well as a two-carbon tether between the quaternary carbon and the hydrazide β-nitrogen. A total of 25 new inhibitors were designed, synthesized and biologically evaluated, the best compound had an EC50 value of 3 nM. Based on this series a project aimed at synthesizing macrocycles spanning the P1-P3 area was initiated. Macrocycles often tend to have an improved affinity and metabolic profile compared to their linear analogs. Introduction of a handle in the para position of the P1 benzyl group proved difficult, despite efforts to synthesize intermediates containing either a bromo-, hydroxy-, methoxy-, silyl-group protected hydroxy- or an alkyne-group. The lactone intermediate was abandoned in favor of an alternative synthetic route and initial studies were found to be promising. This new approach requires further investigation before the target macrocycles can be synthesized.

The pathogen Streptococcus pyogenes is a significant cause of human morbidity and mortality. Most of the work in this thesis is focused on streptococcal virulence factor IdeS, but the thesis also features work on SpeB, another streptococcal virulence factor. Both IdeS and SpeB are secreted cysteine proteases and both have previously been shown to degrade human IgG. IgG is the only known substrate for IdeS while SpeB is a more promiscuous protease with a larger number of identified substrates. A significant part of the data presented in this thesis is the result of designing and optimizing methods to detect and accurately measure the proteolytic degradation of IgG. Methods aimed at measuring the binding interactions between enzyme and substrate have also been frequently utilized. I show that IdeS is a monomeric protease, as opposed to previously published data that suggested it to be dimeric. IdeS cleaves the two heavy chains of IgG in a two-step reaction and I demonstrate that the first cleavage is magnitudes faster than the second one. This means that IdeS is a more efficient enzyme than previously thought. The difference in rate cannot completely be explained by a loss of affinity between IdeS and IgG after the cleavage of the first heavy chain. The velocity of IdeS is further increased by the presence of human Cystatin C, via an unknown mechanism. Cystatin C is normally a protease inhibitor and it having an opposite effect is puzzling.The synthesis and evaluation of novel inhibitors are also described. Peptide analogues mimicking the sequence surrounding the scissile bond on IgG - with an amino acid replaced with a more rigid motif - act as specific, but low-affinity, inhibitors of IdeS. The peptide analogues’ inhibitory capacity for SpeB and papain was also assayed.When it comes to SpeB, I show that it does not have IgG as a substrate under physiological conditions, in contrast to what was previously thought. This thesis does not only present findings on the IgG degrading capacity of IdeS and SpeB but also include data on fundamental enzymatic properties for these proteases.