>Magister Scientiae - MSc / Human Coronaviruses (HCoVs) are found within the family Coronaviridae (genus, Coronavirus) and are enveloped, single-stranded, positive-sense RNA viruses. Infections of humans by coronaviruses are not normally associated with severe diseases. However, the identification of the coronavirus responsible for the outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS-CoV) showed that highly pathogenic coronaviruses can enter the human population. The SARS-CoV epidemic resulted in 8 422 cases with 916 deaths globally (case fatality rate: 10.9%). In 2004 a group 1 Coronavirus, designated Human Coronavirus NL63 (HCoV-NL63), was isolated from a 7 month old Dutch child suffering from bronchiolitis. In addition, HCoV-NL63 causes disease in children (detected in approximately 10% of respiratory tract infections), the elderly and the immunocompromised. This study was designed to express the full length nucleocapsid (N) proteins of HCoV-NL63 and SARS-CoV for antibody production in an animal model. The NL63-N/pFN2A and SARSN/ pFN2A plasmid constructs were used for this study. The presence of the insert on the Flexi ® vector was confirmed by restriction endonuclease digest and sequence verification. The sequenced chromatographs obtained from Inqaba Biotec were consistent with sequences from the NCBI Gen_Bank. Proteins were expressed in a KRX Escherichia coli bacterial system and analysed using 15% SDS-PAGE and Western Blotting. Thereafter, GST-tagged proteins were purified ith an affinity column purification system. Purified fusion proteins were subsequently cleaved with Pro-TEV Plus protease, separated on 15% SDS-PAGE gel and stained with Coomassie Brilliant Blue R250. The viral fusion proteins were subsequently used to immunize Balbc mice in order to produce polyclonal antibodies. A direct ELISA was used to analyze and validate the production of polyclonal antibodies by the individual mice. This is a preliminary study for development of diagnostic tools for the detection of HCoV-NL63 from patient samples collected in the Western Cape. / South Africa

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are eukaryotic integral membrane proteins that perform transmembrane signal transduction. Due to their pivotal role in a wide range of essential physiological functions GPCRs represent a high proportion of all drug targets. High resolution X-ray structures of GPCRs are however underrepresented in the Protein Data Bank. This is due to their instability in detergent, low expression levels and the presence of misfolded receptors in many heterologous expression systems. The objective of this project was to engineer the angiotensin II type 1 receptor (AT1R), a human GPCR, to make it suitable for structural studies. It was determined that detergentsolubilised AT1R was thermostable with antagonist bound with an apparent Tm of ~45°C, which was sufficiently stable for purification without further thermostabilisation by rational mutagenesis. Two expression systems were then evaluated for large-scale production of AT1R, namely baculovirus-mediated expression in insect cells and mammalian expression in HEK293 cells. Radioligand binding assays showed that only the mammalian system produced sufficient quantities of active AT1R for structural studies. Expression in the mammalian system was further optimised to approximately 6 mg/L. An AT1R-GFP fusion was created to examine membrane localisation using confocal laser scanning microscopy, to assay expression levels, to select highly expressing monoclonal cell lines using fluorescence activated flow cytometry and to develop a fluorescence size-exclusion chromatographybased assay to examine the suitability of 12 different ligands for co-crystallization. AT1R was also engineered to facilitate crystallisation, including C-terminal truncations to remove predicted disordered regions and bacteriophage T4-lysozyme being added to the third intracellular loop to provide additional points of contact for crystallisation, which increased the apparent Tm by approximately 10°C. All modified versions of AT1R were assessed for expression, stability and monodispersity. Additionally a rapid western blotting based assay was developed for the detection of unfolded membrane proteins, which will have wide applicability in the field.

As BMPs (Bone Morphogenetic Proteins) são membros da superfamília de proteínas TGF-β (Transforming Growth Factor β ), regulam o crescimento e diferenciação de vários tipos celulares em diversos tecidos, e algumas delas desempenham um papel crítico na diferenciação de células de origem mesenquimal em osteoblastos. Particularmente, rhBMP2 e rhBMP7, promovem osteoindução tanto \"in vitro\" como \"in vivo,\" sendo, ambas as proteínas utilizadas terapeuticamente em Ortopedia/Odontologia para reparo ósseo. A expressão diferencial de genes durante a osteodiferenciação de células C2C12 induzida por rhBMP2 e rhBMP7, foi analisada através de microarranjos de DNA, selecionando 31 genes, dos quais 24 foram validados por qPCR, 13 dos quais são relacionados à transcrição, quatro associados a algumas vias de sinalização celular e sete associados à matriz extracelular. Análise funcional destes genes permitirá conhecer, com maiores detalhes, os eventos moleculares que ocorrem durante a diferenciação osteoblástica de células C2C12 induzida por rhBMPs. Em paralelo, foi perseguida a super-expressão de rhBMP2 e rhBMP7 em células HEK293T, demonstrando-se a atividade de rhBMP7, induzindo osteodiferenciação \"in vitro\" e formação de osso \"in vivo\", demonstrando a viabilidade do objetivo de se produzir estas proteínas para futura aplicação como biofármacos no Brasil. / The BMPs (Bone Morphogenetic Proteins) are members of the TGF-β (Transforming Growth Factor β) superfamily of proteins, regulate growth and differentiation of various cell types in various tissues, and some play a critical role in differentiation of mesenchymal cells into osteoblasts. Particularly, rhBMP2 and rhBMP7, promote osteoinduction \"in vitro\" and \"in vivo\" and both proteins are used therapeutically in Orthopedics and Dentistry. The differential expression of genes during osteodifferentiation induced by rhBMP2 and rhBMP7 in C2C12 cells was analyzed through DNA microarrays, allowing the selection of 31 genes, of which 24 were validated by qPCR, 13 of which are related to transcription, four associated with cell signaling pathways and seven are associated with the extracellular matrix. Subsequent functional analysis of these genes should reveal more details on the molecular events which take place during C2C12 cells osteoblastic differentiation induced by rhBMPs In paralel, rhBMPs 2 and 7 were overexpressed in HEK293T cells and BMP7 activity to induce osteodifferentiation \"in vitro\" and bone formation \"in vivo\" was demonstrated, reinforcing the viability of our objective to produce these proteins for future application as biopharmaceuticals in Brazil.

A Esquistossomose é uma das mais importantes doenças endêmicas do mundo, com mais de 200 milhões de pessoas infectadas em 76 países. É estimado que mais de 600 milhões de pessoas estejam em áreas endêmicas. Em 2003 dados do transcriptoma do Schistosoma mansoni foram disponibilizados. As informações de proteínas codificadas permitiram a análise de suas funções, e auxiliaram na procura de novos candidatos vacinais. A análise do transcriptoma permitiu a identificação de três famílias de proteínas homólogas à dineína de cadeia leve (DLC) de mamíferos. Uma delas é a família L8, com ao menos 18 membros, com proteínas em torno de 10 kDa. Essas proteínas são expressas em diferentes estágios do ciclo de vida do Schistosoma mansoni. Duas DLCs foram reconhecidas no tegumento de S. japonicum, sugerindo que elas são expostas ao sistema imune do hospedeiro. Salmonelas atenuadas como vacinas vivas têm sido descritas como bons veículos para apresentação de antígenos heterólogos. No nosso laboratório uma importante ferramenta tem sido desenvolvida para auxiliar o uso de salmonelas como vacinas vivas recombinantes, foi desenvolvido um vetor plasmididal baseado no regulon soxRS para controlar a expressão de genes heterólogos in vivo. Este sistema de expressão promove a expressão de proteínas recombinantes sob condições de estresse oxidativo, como aquele imposto ao microorganismo dentro do macrófago. Para investigar o potencial vacinal das DLCs, três genes foram selecionados para serem clonados e expressos em E. coli e em salmonelas atenuadas. A antigenicidade e imunogenicidade desses parálogos foram testadas em camundongos depois de serem imunizados com proteínas purificadas ou com salmonelas recombinantes. As DLCs mostraram ser bastante imunogênicas, aumentando os título de IgG. A proteína DLC1 também aumentou os níveis de IgE no soro dos animais, fato que poderia estar relacionado com reações alérgicas observadas em populações infetadas. Altos níveis de IgE também podem ser relacionados com uma marca de resistência existente em pessoas que vivem em áreas endêmicas. Depois de imunizados os animais foram desafiados com cercárias para investigar possível proteção. Foi observado que a imunização com proteínas purificadas resultou em aproximadamente 40% de diminuição da carga parasitária. A análise dos granulomas hepáticos com 45 dias depois da infecção indicou uma significativa redução, maior que 70% das áreas dos granulomas, sgerindo que a imunização com as DLCs promove uma importante interferência na formação dos granulomas hepáticos. Por outro lado, nossos estudos com salmonelas atenuadas recombinantes, carregando as DLCs, mostraram que foram ineficientes na apresentação dos antígenos ao sistema imune. Relacionando os resultados de diminuição de carga parasitária e das áreas dos granulomas depois da imunização com as DLCs purificadas sugere-se que essas proteínas podem ser consideradas como interessantes candidatos vacinais, uma vez que elas afetam as mais importantes causas da patologia da esquistossomose. / Schistosomiasis is one of the most important endemic diseases in the world, with more than 200 million people infected in 76 countries. It is estimated that more than 600 million people live in endemic areas. In 2003 extensive data from the transcriptome of Schsitosoma mansoni was made available. The information on the encoded proteins allowed the analysis of protein function and improved the search for vaccine candidates. The analysis of the transcriptome allowed the identification of three families of proteins homologs to the mammalian dynein light chain (DLC). One of these was the L8 family, with at least 18 members, all proteins with around 10 kDa. These proteins were found to be expressed in the different stages of the S. mansoni life cycle. Two DLCs were recognized in the tegument of S. japonicum, suggesting that they are exposed to the host immune system. Attenuated salmonellas, as live vaccines, have been described as good vehicles for presentation of heterologous antigens. At our laboratory an important tool has been developed to improve the use of salmonellas as live recombinant vaccines, a plasmidial vector based on the soxRS regulon to control the expression of heterologous genes in vivo. This expression system promotes the expression of recombinant proteins under conditions of oxidative stress, such as that imposed to the microorganism in the macrophage environment. To investigate the vaccine potential of DLCs, three genes were selected to be cloned and expressed in E. coli and in attenuated salmonellas. Antigenicity and immunogenicity of these paralogous were tested in mice after immunization with purified proteins or with the recombinant salmonellas. The DLCs were proven to be very immunogenic, increasing the IgG titers. DLC1 also increased the IgE levels in the sera of animals, what could be related to allergenic reactions observed in infected population. High level of IgE can also be related to the resistance mark of people living in endemic areas. After immunization, the animals were challenged with cercarias to investigate the protective profile. It was observed that immunization with purified proteins resulted in approximately 40% decreasing in the worm burden. The analysis of the hepatic granulomas 45 days after infection indicated a significant, up to 70 %, reduction of the granuloma areas, suggesting that immunization with DLCs promotes important interference in the hepatic granuloma formation. On the other hand, our studies with the attenuated recombinant salmonellas, carrying DLCs, showed no effective antigen presentation to the mice immune system. Taking together, the results of decreasing the worm burden and the granuloma size after immunization with purified DLCs suggest that these proteins could be considered as interesting vaccine candidates, affecting the main causes of the pathology of schistosomiasis.

The bacterium Chlamydia trachomatis is the leading cause of bacterial sexually transmitted infection worldwide. When left untreated, chlamydial infections can lead to severe complications, such as infertility. Lack in current prevention and management due to its asymptomatic course of infection highlight the need for an effective vaccine against chlamydia. There is no vaccine at present to protect against chlamydia, but research is ongoing. A research group at Örebro University has developed a protein antigen candidate. This project focused on the production of the candidate, here called Protein X, for preclinical trials. This included optimising production in Escherichia coli to maximise formation of soluble protein, optimising purification, buffer exchange and removal of His-tag. It was found that formation of soluble protein was favoured in lower expression temperatures. Furthermore, purification was performed on soluble and insoluble protein fractions using immobilised metal affinity chromatography. However, issues with inefficient binding to the resin and purity could not be solved and further optimisation is needed. Buffers were tested to find a suitable buffer for preclinical experiments, but the protein precipitated in all buffers. It was however found that protein from the insoluble fraction dissolved in pure water. Lastly, removal of the His-tag was performed with a non-enzymatic method that utilises nickel ions instead of expensive proteases. Efficient removal was however not achieved and enzymatic methods may be considered instead. In conclusion, this project highlighted issues in the production of Protein X and may guide the research group towards improving this process for efficient preclinical preparations.

De par l'omniprésence des rayonnements ionisants, l’évaluation de leur impact sur les écosystèmes est devenue une préoccupation environnementale majeure. Cependant, l’évaluation des risques environnementaux liés aux expositions chroniques souffre d’un manque de connaissances, d’autant que l’extrapolation des données acquises après exposition aiguë (plus nombreuses) ne semble pas adaptée pour la prédiction des effets des expositions chroniques. Pour exemple, les effets sur les paramètres individuels i.e. la reproduction, diffèrent entre ces deux modes d’expositions, suggérant que les mécanismes moléculaires sous-jacents diffèrent également. Il est donc nécessaire de réaliser des études au niveau individuel et subcellulaire afin de mieux comprendre les différences de radiotoxicité observées entre les deux modes d’irradiation. Les protéines sont les molécules fonctionnelles dans les organismes, elles peuvent être les cibles de dommages oxydatifs (i.e carbonylation), et sont susceptibles d’être des marqueurs pertinents et sensibles de l’exposition aux rayonnements ionisants. Ainsi, l’objectif de ce projet de thèse était d’améliorer la compréhension des mécanismes moléculaires de radiotoxicité (aigu vs chronique) en étudiant particulièrement la contribution du protéome chez un organisme modèle, le nématode Caenorhabditis elegans. Pour ce faire, l’étude des effets d’irradiation gamma aiguë et chronique sur une large gamme de doses (0,5 - 200Gy, dont 4 doses communes aux deux modes d’exposition) a été opérée au niveau individuel, et en particulier sur la reproduction, paramètre susceptible d’influencer directement la dynamique des populations. En complément, la modulation de l'expression des protéines mais aussi leurs dommages (i.e carbonylation) et leur dégradation par le protéasome ont été évalués. Les résultats ont montré que l’irradiation aiguë induit un effet sur le succès d’éclosion et sur la ponte totale dès 30Gy alors que seule la ponte totale est impactée par l’irradiation chronique à partir de 3,3Gy. A l’échelle moléculaire, les niveaux de protéines carbonylées sont très peu modulés après exposition chronique ou aiguë aux rayonnements ionisants. Le protéasome semble être impliqué dans la dégradation des protéines carbonylées après irradiation chronique. En revanche, après irradiation aiguë, celui-ci semble dépassé, suggérant une possible implication d’autres mécanismes de défense (autophagie). Les profils d’expression des protéines, et notamment de protéines impliquées dans l’apoptose, la réparation des dommages à l’ADN, la réplication et la reproduction sont différents après irradiation aiguë et chronique. Ainsi, les protéines nécessaires au développement embryonnaire sont réprimées après irradiation aiguë dès 0,5 Gy alors que celles impliquées dans le développement de la lignée germinale sont surexprimées. Ces dernières sont réprimées après irradiation chronique dès 0,5 Gy. Ces résultats, suggèrent que les mécanismes de radiotoxicité entre les expositions aiguës et chroniques sont bien distincts, et que les effets de l’irradiation aiguë pourraient être dus à une perturbation de l’embryogénèse (via l’accumulation de dommages génotoxiques). A l’inverse, l’irradiation chronique induirait un effet sur la gamétogénèse se traduisant par une baisse de la ponte totale sans affecter l’embryogénèse. Ce projet de recherche nous a permis d’apporter des connaissances sur les cascades d’évènements moléculaires suite à différentes conditions d'irradiation gamma et illustre l’intérêt d’utiliser une approche intégrée pour mieux prédire et comprendre les effets observés sur les grandes fonctions biologiques. De plus ces travaux ont permis de caractériser des marqueurs protéiques d’exposition plus sensibles que les marqueurs individuels puisque l’activité du protéasome et l’expression des protéines est modulée dès 0,5Gy. In fine cet ensemble de données contribuera à améliorer l’évaluation des risques pour l’environnement. / Because of the ubiquitous nature of ionizing radiation, the risk assessment on ecosystems has become a major environmental concern. However, the environmental risk assessment of chronic exposures suffers from a lack of knowledge, especially because the extrapolation of data acquired after acute exposure in order to predict the effects of chronic exposures is not always relevant. Indeed, the effects on the individual parameters, i.e reproduction, differ between these two irradiation modes, suggesting that underlying mechanisms are also different. It is therefore necessary to carry out studies at the individual and at the subcellular level in order to better understand molecular mechanisms governing these differences in the observed effects. Proteins are the functional molecules in organisms, they can be the targets of oxidative damage (i.e carbonylation), and are likely to be relevant and sensitive markers of exposure to ionizing radiation. Thus, the objective of this research project was to improve the understanding of molecular mechanisms of radiotoxicity (acute vs chronic), particularly by studying the proteome contribution, on the biological model Caenorhabditis elegans. The study of the acute and chronic gamma irradiation effects, on a large dose range (between 0.5 and 200Gy, including 4 common doses to both irradiation modes), was performed at the individual level with the reproduction as endpoint, a parameter likely to directly influence the dynamic of populations. In addition, the modulation of protein expression but also their damage (i.e. carbonylation) and their degradation by the proteasome were evaluated. The results showed that acute irradiation induced an effect on hatching success and on total spawning from 30 Gy whereas only total spawning was impacted after chronic irradiation from 3.3 Gy. At the molecular level, the global level of carbonylated proteins was not so modified after chronic or acute exposure to ionizing radiation. The proteasome appears to be involved in the degradation of carbonylated proteins after chronic irradiation whereas after acute irradiation, it seems overtaken, suggesting a possible involvement of other defense mechanisms (autophagy). The protein expression, and particularly proteins involved in apoptosis, DNA repair, replication and reproduction, is differentially modulated after acute and chronic exposure. Thus, the proteins involved in embryonic development are repressed after acute irradiation as soon as 0.5 Gy whereas those involved in the germline development are overexpressed. These results suggest that the radiotoxicity mechanisms between acute and chronic exposures are quite different and that the effects of acute irradiation may be due to an embryogenesis disturbance (via the accumulation of genotoxic damage). Conversely to acute, chronic irradiation induces an effect on gametogenesis, resulting in a decrease of the total spawning without impacting embryogenesis. This research project allowed us to provide knowledge on the molecular cascade events following different gamma irradiation conditions and highlights the need of using an integrated approach to better predict and understand the observed effects on major biological functions. Moreover, this work allowed characterizing more sensitive markers of exposure than the individual ones as the proteasome activity and the protein expression is modulated from 0.5Gy. Ultimately this dataset would help to improve the environmental risk assessment.

Background: Trypsinogen is the inactive precursor of trypsin, a serine protease that cleaves proteins and peptides after arginine and lysine residues. In this study, human trypsinogen was used as a model protein to study the influence of electrostatic forces on protein–protein interactions. Trypsinogen is active only after its eight-amino-acid-long activation peptide has been cleaved off by another protease, enteropeptidase. Trypsinogen can also be autoactivated without the involvement of enteropeptidase. This autoactivation process can occur if a trypsinogen molecule is activated by another trypsin molecule and therefore is based on a protein–protein interaction. Results: Based on a rational protein design based on autoactivation-defective guinea pig trypsinogen, several amino acid residues, all located far away from the active site, were changed to modify the surface charge of human trypsinogen. The influence of the surface charge on the activation pattern of trypsinogen was investigated. The autoactivation properties of mutant trypsinogen were characterized in comparison to the recombinant wild-type enzyme. Surface-charged trypsinogen showed practically no autoactivation compared to the wild-type but could still be activated by enteropeptidase to the fully active trypsin. The kinetic parameters of surface-charged trypsinogen were comparable to the recombinant wild-type enzyme. Conclusion: The variant with a modified surface charge compared to the wild-type enzyme showed a complete different activation pattern. Our study provides an example how directed modification of the protein surface charge can be utilized for the regulation of functional protein–protein interactions, as shown here for human trypsinogen.

Protein Nkr-p1b is a surface receptor of cytotoxic NK cells, that mediates inhibitory signal toward the body's own cells. In this study, the ligand binding domain of the mouse protein receptor Nkr-p1b (mNkr-p1b LBD) was prepared by recombinant expression in E. coli cells. Isolated protein was subsequently used for NMR structural analysis. Prediction of protein secondary structures ratio was carried out using three different methods (CD, PSIPRED and TALOS). Results correlate well with the structure of CTLD domain, that plays a key role in ligand binding and thus to function of Nkr-p1b receptor. We managed to prepare this protein in a form suitable for NMR experiments. Based on the data obtained by NMR spectra analysis, a preliminary model of the mNkr-p1b LBD protein structure was created. However, for more precise learning of the 3D structure accurate positions of individual atoms need to be determined by other NMR spectra evaluation in the next phase. Explaining the structure of the ligand binding domain of mNkr-p1b protein could help to better understand the complex mechanism of activation of NK cell cytotoxic activity, thereby contributing to its controlled use as a therapeutic against some viral and tumor diseases.

Transgenic plants expressing a foreign gene are a suitable system for the production of relevant immunogens in high amounts that can be used for the development of a new generation of vaccines against a variety of infectious diseases. In the present study, the expression of the nucleocapsid (N) protein of hantavirus serotype Puumala in tobacco and potato plants was investigated. Transgenic tobacco and potato plants were generated and established. These transgenic plants expressed the N protein of Puumala virus strain CG-1820. No major differences were observed when the phenotype and growth rates of transgenic plants were compared to those of normal plants. However, it was found that the leaves of transgenic tobacco plants were more slender and the tubers of transgenic potato plants were smaller than those in normal plants. In order to investigate the distribution of the expression of the foreign gene in transgenic plants, the proteins of leaves and roots of the individual transgenic tobacco and potato plants were examined by Western blot analyses. It was found that all transgenic tobacco and potato plants expressed the N protein in the leaves, whereas transgenic potato plants are able to significantly express the viral proteins also in the tubers and roots. The antigens were expressed at a level of 1 ng of protein/5 μg of dried leaves. The hantaviral recombinant N proteins obtained from transgenic tobacco and potato plants were able to elicit specific humoral and mucosal immune responses when administered intraperitoneally or orally to rabbits and mice. The expression of viral proteins in plants has two major advantages compared to other expression systems: firstly, there is no risk of contamination with mammalian viruses or other pathogens, and secondly, the production of high amounts of antigens is cheap and therefore of great economic interest. / Dieser Beitrag ist mit Zustimmung des Rechteinhabers aufgrund einer (DFG-geförderten) Allianz- bzw. Nationallizenz frei zugänglich.

Lactobacillus kunkeei is the most common and dominant bacterium in the honey stomach of honeybees. L. kunkeei has been isolated from honeybees all over the world. Genome sequencing has identified 5 genes for exceptionally large proteins in the genome of L. kunkeei. These proteins do not show any similarity to sequences of proteins with a known structure. These giant proteins all have a conserved region of 60 amino acids in their C-terminus. This conservation led to the hypothesis that the C-terminal domains of the giant proteins are important for their function with possibly a role in the attachment to the cell wall. In this study, a total of eight different constructs were made for two of these giant proteins. The boundaries for the constructs were determined based on bioinformatic predictions. The eight constructs all have different start positions and all end at the very C-terminal end of the protein. These constructs were cloned into an expression vector. One of the full-length giant protein was cloned into an expression vector as well.  The C-terminal constructs and the full-length proteins were recombinantly produced in Escherichia coli. Expression of six C-terminal constructs was observed and an attempt was made to purify two of the C-terminal constructs. Expression of the full-length giant protein was observed as well and purification was attempted. Neither the C-terminal constructs nor the full-length giant protein could be purified at full length. The results for the C-terminal constructs show that no folded C-terminal domain has been found for the giant proteins. A purified protein construct of the N-terminal of one of the giant proteins was available. This protein was analyzed using biophysical techniques. Circular dichroism was used to test the thermal stability. The construct did not refold after being thermally denatured. Circular dichroism measurements indicated that the N-terminal construct is composed of a mixture of α-helices and ß-sheets. Small-angle X-ray scattering data indicated that the N-terminal construct had an elongated shape with knot-like parts. Protein crystals have been obtained for the N-terminal construct and these will be analyzed using X-ray diffraction.