abstract: This research focuses mainly on employing tunable materials to achieve dynamic radiative properties for spacecraft and building thermal management. A secondary objective is to investigate tunable materials for optical propulsion applications. The primary material investigated is vanadium dioxide (VO2), which is a thermochromic material with an insulator-to-metal phase transition. VO2 typically undergoes a dramatic shift in optical properties at T = 341 K, which can be reduced through a variety of techniques to a temperature more suitable for thermal control applications. A VO2-based Fabry-Perot variable emitter is designed, fabricated, characterized, and experimentally demonstrated. The designed emitter has high emissivity when the radiating surface temperature is above 345 K and low emissivity when the temperature is less than 341 K. A uniaxial transfer matrix method and Bruggeman effective medium theory are both introduced to model the anisotropic properties of the VO2 to facilitate the design of multilayer VO2-based devices. A new furnace oxidation process is developed for fabricating high quality VO2 and the resulting thin films undergo comprehensive material and optical characterizations. The corresponding measurement platform is developed to measure the temperature-dependent transmittance and reflectance of the fabricated Fabry-Perot samples. The variable heat rejection of the fabricated samples is demonstrated via bell jar and cryothermal vacuum calorimetry measurements. Thermal modeling of a spacecraft equipped with variable emittance radiators is also conducted to elucidate the requirements and the impact for thermochromic variable emittance technology. The potential of VO2 to be used as an optical force modulating device is also investigated for spacecraft micropropulsion. The preliminary design considers a Fabry-Perot cavity with an anti-reflection coating which switches between an absorptive “off” state (for insulating VO2) and a reflective “on” state (for metallic VO2), thereby modulating the incident solar radiation pressure. The visible and near-infrared optical properties of the fabricated vanadium dioxide are examined to determine if there is a sufficient optical property shift in those regimes for a tunable device. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Aerospace Engineering 2020

京都大学 / 0048 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(理学) / 甲第21565号 / 理博第4472号 / 新制||理||1642(附属図書館) / 京都大学大学院理学研究科物理学・宇宙物理学専攻 / (主査)准教授 細川 隆史, 教授 田中 貴浩, 教授 井岡 邦仁 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Science / Kyoto University / DGAM

Les protubérances solaires sont de fascinantes structures magnétiques à grande échelle dans l'atmosphère solaire. Elles sont l'objet de recherches depuis des dizaines d'années mais des questions comme leur formation, leur stabilité et leur éruption ne sont toujours pas bien comprises. De grands progrès ont été obtenus dans ce domaine et celui des éruptions en particulier avec une combinaison d'observations synoptiques et continues depuis l'espace (voir SoHO/EIT, STEREO/SECCHI/EUVI, et SDO/AIA) et en spectro-imagerie multilongueurs d'onde. Depuis le lancement du satellite IRIS en 2013, beaucoup de résultats d'observations et de modélisations ont été obtenus grâce à la très haute résolution spectrale et spatiale d'IRIS tant en spectroscopie qu'en imagerie. Dans cette thèse, nous nous focalisons sur les signatures observationnelles des processus mis en avant pour expliquer les éruptions de protubérances. Nous essayons aussi de déterminer les variations de conditions physiques d'une protubérance éruptive et d'estimer à la fois les masses de matière qui quittent le Soleil et celles qui retournent au Soleil pendant une éruption. En ce qui concerne les vitesses, nous parvenons à construire le vecteur vitesse en chaque pixel de la protubérance observée, grâce à la combinaison d'une méthode de "flot optique" appliquée aux images AIA 304 et IRIS Mg II h&k ce qui donne accès aux vitesses dans le plan du ciel, d'une part, et grâce à la technique Doppler appliquée aux profils IRIS Mg II h&k ce qui permet de calculer les vitesses le long de la ligne de visée, d'autre part. En ce qui concerne les densités et températures, nous comparons les intensités absolues observées avec les valeurs déduites de calculs de transfert radiatif Hors-Equilibre Thermodynamique Local, ce qui nous permet de construire des cartes de ces quantités. Les densités électroniques ainsi déduites sont dans la gamme 1.3E9 - 7.0E10 cm⁻³ et les densités totales d'hydrogène dans la gamme 1.5E9 – 3.6E11 cm⁻³ dans les diverses régions de la protubérance. La température moyenne est d'environ 1.1E4 K une valeur plus élevée que dans les protubérances quiescentes. Le degré d'ionisation varie entre 0.1 et 10. Les flux de masse à l'intérieur de la protubérance et leurs variations temporelles ont pu ainsi être calculés. La masse totale ainsi déduite est dans la gamme 1.3E14 - 3.2E14 g. La perte totale de masse de la protubérance vers la surface solaire évaluée sur la durée d'observation avec IRIS est d'un ordre de grandeur plus faible que la masse totale de la protubérance. Nous explorons aussi les corrélations entre indices spectraux observables dans les raies h et k de Mg II et des quantités physiques comme la densité et la mesure d'émission (ME). Nous avons choisi de calculer des modèles uni-dimensionnels (1D) isothermes et isobares en utilisant le code PRODOP_Mg NLTE disponible à MEDOC (IAS) et en procédant au calcul exact du rayonnement incident. Nous en déduisons des corrélations entre les intensités émergentes dans les raies h et k d'une part, et les densités et les ME d'autre part. Moyennant quelques hypothèses sur la température, nous établissons une relation entre les intensités k (et h) et la ME, une relation qui devrait être utile pour déterminer les densités d'hydrogène et d'électrons aussi bien que l'épaisseur effective d'une protubérance observée. Ainsi donc, l'évolution des propriétés morphologiques et thermodynamiques d'une protubérance éruptive ont été étudiées de dans cette thèse. Ces travaux conduisent à une meilleure compréhension de quelques aspects des protubérances (éruptives), tels la distribution et l'évolution des densités, de la température, des vitesses et du degré d'ionisation. Nous avons ainsi fourni des contraintes utiles à la modélisation des protubérances. Dans notre conclusion, nous résumons nos résultats et proposons quelques suggestions pour de futures analyses et observations et pour des capacités instrumentales optimisées. / Solar prominences are fascinating, large-scale magnetic structures in the solar atmosphere. They have been investigated for many decades, but the issues of their formation, stability, and eruption are still not well understood. Much progress has been made in our knowledge of prominences and their eruptions with both synoptic measurements from space (with SoHO/EIT, STEREO/SECCHI/EUVI, and SDO/AIA) and multiwavelength spectro-imaging. Since the launch of IRIS in 2013, a lot of results have been obtained in both observational and modeling domains with IRIS high spectral and spatial resolution imaging and spectroscopy. In this thesis, we focus on the observational signatures of the processes which have been put forward for explaining eruptive prominences. We also try to figure out the variations of physical conditions of the eruptive prominence and estimate the masses leaving the Sun vs. the masses returning to the Sun during the eruption. As far as velocities are concerned, we derive a full velocity vector for each pixel of the observed prominence by combining an optical flow method on the AIA 304Å and IRIS Mg II h&k images in order to derive the plane-of-sky velocities and a Doppler technique on the IRIS Mg II h&k profiles to compute the line-of-sight velocities. As far as densities and temperatures are concerned, we compare the absolute observed intensities with values derived from Non-Local Thermodynamic Equilibrium (NLTE) radiative transfer computations to build maps of these quantities. The derived electron densities range from 1.3E9 to 7.0E10 cm⁻³ and the derived total Hydrogen densities range from 1.5E9 to 3.6E11 cm⁻³ in different regions of the prominence. The mean temperature is around 1.1E4 K which is higher than in quiescent prominences. The ionization degree is in the range of 0.1 to 10. The mass flows in the prominence and their variations with time are consequently computed. The total mass is 1.3E14 to 3.2E14 g. The total mass drainage from the prominence to the solar surface during the observation of IRIS is about one order of magnitude smaller than the total mass of prominence. We also explore the correlations between the observable spectral features in h and k lines of Mg II to physical quantities such as the density and the Emission Measure (EM). We choose to compute one-dimensional (1D) isothermal and isobaric models using the PRODOP_Mg NLTE code available at MEDOC (IAS) with the exact computation of the incident radiation. Then we derive correlations between the k and h emergent intensities on one hand and the densities and EM on the other hand. With some assumptions on the temperature, we obtain a unique relation between the k (and h) intensities and the EM that should be useful for deriving either the hydrogen and electron densities or the effective thickness of an observed prominence. Thus, the evolution of the morphology and thermodynamic properties of an erupting prominence have been studied in the thesis. These investigations lead to our understanding in some aspects of prominences, e.g., the distribution and evolution of densities, temperatures, velocities and ionization degree. These could be useful constraints for theoretical prominence models. In the conclusion, we summarize our results and provide some suggestions for future analysis, observations and ideal observing capabilities.

Les recherches de SNe ont commencé il y a plus de 100 ans. Depuis, il a été possible de collecter beaucoup de données d'observations astronomiques. Les astronomes ont développé une classification détaillée et ont abouti un relatif consensus sur la nature physique de ces événements très différents. Néanmoins, beaucoup de questions restent sans réponse. En résumé, les supernovæ de type II (riche en hydrogène) résultent de l'éjection l'enveloppe des supergéantes rouges (SGR). Les principales sources de connaissance sur ces objets sont l'évolution de leur luminosité en fonction du temps (`courbes de lumière') et leurs spectres observés à différentes époques. La méthode la plus utilisée pour extraire les informations des données d'observation est la modélisation des courbes de lumières et des spectres des supernovæ. Dans le Chapitre 1 (Introduction), nous présentons successivement l’évolution stellaire, la physique des explosions et l’évolution des éjectas. Nous décrivons aussi les différents types de supernova ; l’état actuel des connaissances sur les CCSNe ainsi que ces limitations. Nous discutons de la théorie de l'évolution stellaire. Nous décrivons notre approche numérique au Chapitre 2 (Supernova modelling). Elle consiste en trois étapes principales : la modélisation de l'évolution stellaire, l'explosion de l'étoile SGR résultante, et la modélisation de l'évolution des éjectas. Nous présentons la structure modélisée des étoiles SGR ; ces modèles et techniques de calcul sont similaires aux modèles utilisés dans les chapitres suivants. Nous discutons notre méthode d'explosion d'un progéniteur quand son noyau dégénéré commence à s'effondrer. Dans le Chapitre 3 (Observational properties), nous discutons les propriétés observées en photométrie et spectroscopie des CCSNe. Nous extrayons les propriétés statistiques de l'échantillon existant. En utilisant la technique présentée, nous avons effectué une étude détaillée de SN 2008bk, une supernova bien observée (Chapitre 4). Nous pouvons contraindre les propriétés du progéniteur et des paramètres d'explosion. Notre modélisation nous permet de comparer non seulement les propriétés de base telles que la luminosité, mais aussi à analyser en détail les caractéristiques spectrales, telles que la présence de certaines raies spectrales ainsi que leur morphologie. Nous montrons qu'une étoile de 12M⊙ sur la séquence principale est un bon candidat au progéniteur de SN 2008bk. Aussi, nous discutons de la forme asymétrique de la raie Hα et concluons qu'elle provient du chevauchement avec la raie forte du Ba II 6596.9 Å. SN 2008bk, avec quelques dizaines d'autres objets, forme une sous-classe importante de CCSNe — supernovae à faible luminosité. Nous avons consacré une attention particulière à cette classe d'objets, dont l'uniformité et les données d'observation nous permet de tirer des conclusions importantes. Au Chapitre 5, nous étudions l'échantillon de 17 SNe de faible luminosité et analysons la possibilité que ces événements résultent d'explosions de progéniteurs de petite ou de grande masse. Il n'y a pas d'accord solide dans la communauté astronomique sur les progéniteurs possibles des explosions de SNe à faible luminosité. Notre analyse montre que les étoiles massives de masse inférieure (~12 M⊙) sont de bons candidats pour les progéniteurs de cette sous-classe de SNe. De plus, nos simulations d'étoiles de masse élevée (25 et 27 M⊙) montrent qu'une explosion ayant une luminosité aussi faible aurait des propriétés d’observation remarquables qui ne sont pas présentes dans les données. Dans le Chapitre 6, nous étendons notre étude sur toutes les CCSNe, en utilisant des modèles plus énergétiques que dans les Chapitres 4 et 5. Nous fournissons des preuves que ce qui différencie la diversité de SNe II est l'énergie d'explosion plutôt que la masse des éjectas (ou plus précisément la masse de l'enveloppe riche en H de progéniteur). / Dedicated SN searches started over 100 years ago. Over that time, astronomers have collected large sets of observational data. They have developed detailed classification and achieved general agreement on the nature of these events. Nevertheless, a lot of questions remain unanswered. In short, most Type II SNe (hydrogen-rich SNe) are terminal explosions of red supergiant (RSG) stars. The main source of knowledge about these objects are the way their luminosity changes with time (`light curves') and how their radiation is distributed in wavelength. One of the widely used methods to extract the information from the observational data is computer modelling. The largest part of our work lays in the numerical simulations. In Chapter 1 (Introduction), we present succinctly the necessary theory which includes stellar evolution, explosion physics and ejecta evolution. We discuss different types of SNe; the modern knowledge on CCSNe and its problems. We discuss stellar evolution theory. We describe the nucleosynthesis that takes place in the cores of massive stars and gives rise to their final chemical stratification. We describe our numerical approach in Chapter 2 (Supernova modelling). It includes three major steps: stellar evolution modelling, explosion of the resulting RSG star, and ejecta evolution modelling. We present modelled structure of RSG stars; these models and computational techniques are similar to models used in subsequent chapters. We then discuss our numerical methods of exploding a SN once its degenerate core starts collapsing. We discuss explosive nucleosynthesis and its impact on the progenitor composition, production of unstable isotopes and the basic physics of radioactive decay. In Chapter 3 (Observational properties), we discuss the photometric and spectral observational properties of core-collapse SNe. We extract statistical properties of the existing sample. Using the presented technique, we performed a detailed study of the well observed object SN 2008bk (Chapter 4). We are able to constrain its progenitor and explosion properties. Our modelling allows us to compare not only the basic properties such as luminosity, but also to analyze in detail the spectral features, such as line identification and morphology. We show that a 12 M⊙ star on the main sequence is a good candidate for the progenitor of SN 2008bk. Also we discuss the asymmetric shape of the Hα line and conclude that it stems from the overlap with the strong Ba II 6596.9 Å line. SN 2008bk, together with about 20 objects, form a subclass of low-luminosity CCSNe Type II. We devoted a particular attention to this class of objects, whose uniformity and observational data allows us to draw important conclusions. In Chapter 5 (Low-luminosity Type II-P SNe), we study the sample of 17 low-luminosity SNe and analyze the possibility that these events are the result of explosions of low- and high-mass progenitors. There is no solid agreement in the astronomical community on the possible progenitors of the low-luminosity explosions of Type II SNe. Our analysis shows that lower-mass massive stars (~12 M⊙) are good candidates for the progenitors of this subclass of SNe. Moreover, our simulations of high-mass stars (25 and 27 M⊙) show that such low brightness of the explosion of such a massive object would have notable observational properties which are not present in the data. In Chapter 6 (Kinetic energy variation), we extend our study further on the whole class of hydrogen-rich core-collapse SN, using more energetic models than in Chapters 4 and 5. We provide evidences that what differentiates the diversity of SNe II is the explosion energy rather than the ejecta mass (or H-rich envelope mass of the progenitor).

<p>Photovoltaic (PV) cells have become an increasingly ubiquitous technology; however, concentrating photovoltaics (CPV), despite their higher theoretical efficiencies and lower costs, have seen much more limited adoption. Recent literature indicates that thermal management is a key challenge in CPV systems. If not addressed, it can negatively impact efficiency and reliability (lifetime). Traditional cooling methods for CPV use heat sinks, forced air convection or liquid cooling, which can induce an extremely large convection area, or parasite electric consumption. In addition, the moving parts in cooling system usually result in a shorter life time and higher expense for maintenance. Therefore, there is a need for an improved cooling technology that enables significant improvement in CPV systems. As a passive and compact cooling mechanism, radiative cooling utilizes the transparency window of the atmosphere in the long wavelength infrared. It enables direct heat exchange between objects on earth’s surface with outer space. Since radiated power is proportional to the difference of the fourth powers of the temperatures of PV and ambient, significantly greater cooling powers can be realized at high temperatures, compared with convection and conduction. These qualities make radiative cooling a promising method for thermal management of CPV. In this work, experiments show that a temperature drop of 36 degree C have been achieved by radiative cooling, which results in an increase of 0.8 V for open-circuit voltage of GaSb solar cell. The corresponding simulations also reveal the physics behind radiative cooling and give a thorough analysis of the cooling performance.</p>

We give a general introduction to physics, in particular the physics of the Standard Model (SM). Next we discuss one of the problems the SM faces, that of accommodating the neutrino masses. We discuss the concept of radiative mechanisms. Then we study three particular such models in depth. The first is a model due to Ma which introduces three neutrino singlets and one scalar doublet on top of the SM particle content. We discuss the different neutrino masses that this model can hold. It is found that only case of normal hierarchy among the neutrinos is allowed in this model. We also discuss several observable quantities currently being searched for in experiments, and their relation to this model The second model is due to Zee and Babu, and is commonly known as the Zee–Babu model. This model adds two electrically charged scalar particles to the SM. We find that this model can describe both the inverted hierarchy and normal hierarchy. The previously mentioned observable quantities are once again discussed, but with this model in mind. Finally we discuss a model which accounts for the neutrino masses by assuming that there exists a fourth generation of leptons. It is found that this framework is insufficient to describe the observed neutrino masses.

The simplified approach of a turbid medium is commonly applied in theory of radiative transfer for vegetation media. Oriented planar model leaves are assumed whose normals are always confined to the upper half space. These orientations are described with the help of so-called leaf normal distribution functions (LNDFs) so that, within the scope of the turbid theory, a radiative transfer equation can be derived in which the so called Ross-Nilson function G occurs explicitly. This function, as introduced by J. Ross, is based on geometrical considerations and is therefore called geometry function, or shortly G-function (GF). To solve the latter equation G must be known. GF is calculated from the LNDF and was originally derived in an explicit and analytical form for strongly simplified LNDFs only. We demonstrated in a previous work that GF can be calculated also for other standard LNDFs. Based on the latter LNDFs we introduce here a generalised trigonometric LNDF and present the respective formula for G. / Die vereinfachte Annahme eines turbiden Mediums findet in der Theorie des Strahlungstransfers für Vegetationsmedien breite Anwendung. Darin werden orientierte ebene Modellblätter angenommen, deren Normalen stets in den oberen Halbraum weisen. Diese Orientierungen werden mittels sogenannter Blattnormalenverteilungen (BNV) beschrieben, so dass sich im Rahmen der turbiden Theorie eine Strahlungstransfergleichung ableiten lässt, in der die sogenannte Ross-Nilson-Funktion G explizit auftritt. Diese von J. Ross eingeführte Funktion basiert auf geometrischen Betrachtungen und wird daher auch Geometriefunktion genannt oder kurz G-Funktion. G muss zur Lösung der vorigen Gleichung bekannt sein. Es leitet sich aus der BNV ab und konnte in expliziter sowie analytischer Form bislang lediglich für stark vereinfachte BNV hergeleitet werden. Wie wir an dieser Stelle in einem früheren Beitrag gezeigt haben, lässt sich G darüber hinaus für andere standardisierte BNV berechnen. Auf letzteren aufbauend führen wir jetzt eine verallgemeinerte trigonometrische BNV ein und präsentieren die entsprechende Formel für G.

<p>Understanding of thermal transport in small scales gains more importance with increasing demand in microelectronics and advancing fabrication technologies. In addition, scarce in energy sources adds more pressure with increasing expectations on research in energy conversion devices and renewable energies. In parallel to these, new phenomena observable only in small scales are discovered with the research, bringing more opportunities for engineers to solve real-world problems by applying the discoveries and more questions to answer. Thermal radiation as a thermal transport phenomenon is the epicenter of this research. Recent developments such as near-field radiative heat transfer exceeding blackbody radiation or control of radiative cooling via biasing grows the attraction on thermal radiation because these examples challenge our long-lasting understanding of nature. Exploring nature further in the small scale may help us meet the expectations mentioned above.</p> <p> </p> <p>In this thesis work, first, we carry out analyses on radiative heat transfer of natural hyperbolic material, calcite, and compare to that of a polar material SiC. Our study reveals that the high- modes within the hyperbolic bands are responsible for the substantial enhancement in near field radiation. Comparison of calcite with SiC illustrates the significance of the high- modes in calcite vs. surface polariton modes in SiC in their contributions to near-field radiation enhancement, for temperature differences ranging from 1 K to 400 K. We also noticed that the contributions of high- modes in calcite to near-field radiation is comparable to that of surface polaritons in SiC. The results of these analyses will be helpful in the search of hyperbolic materials that can enhance near field radiative transfer.</p> <p> </p> <p>Second, we demonstrate an experimental technique to measure near-field radiative heat transfer between two parallel plates at gap distances ranging from a few nanometers to far-field. A differential measurement circuit based on resistive thermometry to measure the defined temperatures are explained. To predict the defined temperatures, a computational method is utilized. We also detail an alignment technique that consists of a coarse and fine alignment in the relevant gap regions. This technique presents a method with high precision for gap measurement, dynamic gap control, and reliable sensitivity for extreme near-field measurements. Finally, we report experimental results that shows 18,000 times enhancement in radiative heat transfer between two parallel plates.</p> <p> </p> <p>Third, we analyze near-field radiative transfer due to hyperbolic phonon polaritons, driven by temperature gradient inside the bulk materials. We develop a mesoscale many-body scattering approach to account for the role of hyperbolic phonon polaritons in radiative transfer in the bulk and across a vacuum gap. Our study points out the equivalency between the bulk-generated mode and the surface mode in the absence of a temperature gradient in the material, and hence provide a unified framework for near-field radiative transfer by hyperbolic phonon polaritons. The results also elucidate contributions of the bulk-generated mode and the bulk temperature profile in the enhanced near-field radiative transfer.</p> <p> </p> <p>Forth, we study radiative heat transfer in hyperbolic material, hyperbolic boron nitride (hBN), and show a major contribution to energy transport arising from phonon polaritons supported in Reststrahlen bands. This contribution increases spectral radiative transfer by six orders of magnitude inside Reststrahlen bands compared to that outside Reststrahlen bands. The equivalent radiative thermal conductivity increases with temperature increase, and the radiative thermal conductivity can be of the same order of the phonon thermal conductivity. Experimental measurements are discussed. We showed the radiative contribution can account for as much as 27 % of the total thermal transport at 600 K. Hence, in hBN the radiative thermal transport can be comparable to thermal conduction by phonons. We also demonstrate contribution of polaritons to thermal transport in MoO₃. To calculate radiative heat transfer in three principal coordinates separately, we modify and apply the derived many-body model. Our analysis shows that radiative thermal conductivity in both in- and out-of-plane directions increases with temperature and contribution to energy transport by polaritons exceeds that by phonons.</p> <p> </p> Fifth, we build an experimental setup to examine near-field properties of materials using an external thermal source. The nanospectroscopy setup combines near-field microscopy technique, near-field scanning optical microscopy (NSOM), and Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. We further explain challenges in building a nanospectroscopy setup using a weak thermal source and coupling two techniques. This method enables us to investigate spectral thermal radiation and local dielectric properties in nanoscale.

Profiles of broadband terrestrial radiation from airborne pyrgeometer measurements aboard research aircraft Polar 5 obtained during the VERDI campaign in 2012 were used to derive vertical temperature profiles. The retrievals were performed utilizing radiative transfer simulations by libRadtran (Mayer and Kylling, 2005). Manually changing the temperature of the input file for the simulations resulting calculated profiles of terrestrial irradiance were compared with measured profiles and iterated until best agreement. The selected test case shows the possibility of this technique and reveals several possible improvements. The algorithm has to be optimized to adapt the modelling temperature profile automatically using least-square error minimization between measured and modelled irradiance profiles. Additionally the vertical resolution has to be increased to consider small-scale variations. Using humidity and pressure profiles from ground-based observations and nearby radiosoundings significantly improves the retrieved temperature profiles. / Vertikalprofile der breitbandigen terrestrischen Strahlung von flugzeuggetragenen Pyrgeometermessungen an Bord des Forschungsflugzeuges Polar 5 während der VERDI Kampagne in 2012 wurden genutzt, um Vertikalprofile der Temperatur abzuleiten. Das Retrieval erfolgte mit Hilfe von Strahlungstransfersimulationen unter der Verwendungung von libRadtran (Mayer and Kylling, 2005). Dazu wurde die Temperatur der Modellatmosphäre variert, bis eine bestmögliche Übereinstimmung von gemessenem und modellierten Irradianzprofil erzielt wurde. Der ausgesuchte Testfall zeigt das Potential dieser Technik und mögliche Verbessungsansätze. So muss der verwendete Algorithmus automatisiert werden, indem das modellierte Strahlungsprofil mit Hilfe eines Iterationsverfahrens und der Methode der kleinsten Fehlerquadrate an das gemessene Profil angepasst wird. Zusätzlich ist eine Erhöhung der vertikalen Auflösung von 50 m auf 10 m Schritte nötig, um kleinskalige Fluktuationen zu berücksichtigen. Die Verwendung von bodengebundenen Beobachtungen und nahegelegenen Radiosondenaufstiegen in der Modellatmosphäre führt zu einer weiteren signifikanten Verbesserung der abgeleiteten Temperaturprofile.

In an effort to understand unusual power-law spectral slopes observed in some hypercompact H II regions, we consider the radio continuum energy distribution from an ensemble of spherical clumps. An analytic expression for the free-free emission from a single spherical clump is derived. The radio continuum slope (with Fv ∝ vα) is governed by the population of clump optical depths N(τ) such that (1) at frequencies where all clumps are thick, a continuum slope of +2 is found, (2) at frequencies where all clumps are optically thin, a flattened slope of -0.11 is found, and (3) at intermediate frequencies, a power-law segment of significant bandwidth with slopes between these two limiting values can result. For the ensemble distribution, we adopt a power-law distribution N(T) ∝-γ and find that significant power-law segments in the spectral energy distribution with slopes from +2 to -0.11 result only for a relatively restricted range of 7 values from 1 to 2. Furthermore, a greater range of clump optical depths for this distribution leads to a wider bandwidth over which the intermediate power-law segment exists. The model is applied to the source W49N B2 with an observed slope of α ≈ +0.9, but that may be turning over to become optically thin around 2 mm. An adequate fit is found in which most clumps are optically thin and there is little "shadowing" of rearward clumps by foreground clumps (i.e., the geometrical covering factor C ≪ 1). The primary insight gained from our study is that in the Rayleigh-Jeans limit for the Planck function that applies for the radio band, it is the distribution in optical depth of the clump population that is solely responsible for setting the continuum shape, with variations in the size and temperature of clumps serving to modulate the level of free-free emission.