Os radionuclídeos naturais das séries radioativas do 238U, 235U e 232Th são frequentemente utilizados como traçadores em estudos ambientais para a compreensão da dinâmica que ocorre no ambiente marinho e terrestre, como por exemplo, em pesquisas de processos oceânicos e gerenciamento da região costeira. No ambiente marinho, estes radionuclídeos podem ser empregados para estimar fluxos biogeoquímicos de partículas e de nutrientes que ocorrem tanto na coluna dágua, quanto nos sedimentos. Várias pesquisas aplicam a distribuição e o respectivo desequilíbrio dos radionuclídeos naturais no meio ambiente, inclusive em modelos geocronológicos para se obter informações históricas em testemunhos sedimentares. Nesse estudo, realizou-se a caracterização radioquímica das distribuições de 226Ra, 228Ra e 210Pb de uma coluna sedimentar denominada 1B (248 cm de comprimento), coletada na Baía do Almirantado, Antártica. A metodologia utilizada incluiu a lixiviação ácida de amostras de sedimentos, seguida de separação radioquímica sequencial de 226Ra e de 228Ra pela co-precipitação com Ba(Ra)SO4 e de 210Pb pela co-precipitação com PbCrO4. Todas as medidas foram realizadas pela contagem alfa e beta total dos precipitados obtidos, em um detector proporcional de fluxo gasoso de baixa radiação de fundo. As concentrações de atividade de 226Ra e 210Pb foram empregadas para se estimar a atividade de 210Pbnão-suportado presentes no perfil sedimentar 1B. Considerando-se as concentrações de atividade de 210Pbnão-suportado obtidas e a aplicação do modelo CIC(Constant Initial Concentration), foi possível determinar a taxa de sedimentação de 0,59±0,05 cm/ ano. / The natural radionuclides from radioactive series of 238U, 235U and 232Th have been applied as tracers in environmental studies for understanding the dynamics that occur in both marine and terrestrial environment, as for example, in research of oceanic processes and management of the coastal region. In the marine environment, these radionuclides can be used to estimate biogeochemical fluxes of marine particles and nutrients that occur in the water column as well as in the sediment. Several research works applied the distribution and the respective disequilibrium degree of natural radionuclides in the environment, including geochronological models for obtaining historical information on samples of certain sediment profile. In this study we performed a radiochemical characterization of the distribution of 226Ra, 228Ra and 210Pb from a sedimentary column called 1B (248 cm long) collected in the Admiralty Bay, Antarctic Peninsula region. The methodology used included the acid leaching of sediment samples followed by the radiochemical sequential separation of 226Ra and 228Ra by co-precipitation with Ba(Ra)SO4 and 210Pb by co-precipitation with PbCrO4. All measurements were carried out by counting of gross alpha and gross beta measures in a low background gas flow proportional detector. The activity concentrations of 226Ra and 210Pb were used to estimate the unsupported 210Pb activities present in sediment profile 1 B. Based on unsupported 210Pb data and the application of the CIC model (Constant Initial Concentration), it was possible to determine the sedimentation rate of 0.59 ± 0.05 cm /year.

Lanthanide phosphate (LnPO4) and lanthanide vanadate (LnVO4) nanoparticles (NPs) are promising platforms for theranostic applications because of their chemical stability, low solubility, low toxicity, and unique luminescence and magnetic properties. Motivated by the high radiation resistance and ability to host actinides of naturally occurring lanthanide-based compounds, LnPO4 and LnVO4 NPs were studied as radionuclide carriers for targeted radionuclide therapy using in vivoα-generators, 223Ra, 225Ac, and 227Th. The implementation of these radionuclides has shown potential for the treatment of micrometastases and solid tumors as well as challenges in the retention of decay daughters at the target site to minimize unwanted radiotoxicity. LnPO4 and LnVO4 core-shell NPs doped with either 156Eu, a “cocktail” of 85, 89Sr and 156Eu, or in vivo α-generators 223Ra, 225Ac, and 227Th were synthesized in aqueous media. In vitro retention of radionuclides was investigated by dialyzing the radionuclide-doped NPs suspensions against deionized water and quantifying the activity in dialysate aliquots over time. The crystal structure, morphology, physical stability, luminescence and magnetic properties were evaluated. Partial retention of 156Eu (~70–95%) and 85, 89Sr (>80%) was evidenced in LnPO4 core NPs, while 227Th and decay daughters were quantitatively retained in LaPO4 core + 2 shells NPs (>99%). Gd0.8Eu0.2VO4 and GdVO4 core-shell NPs showed partial retention of 223Ra (~75%), 225Ac (75–95%), 227Th (>96%), and decay daughters. Radionuclide retention was influenced by the lanthanide concentration, crystal structure, and number of shells. The partial retention of radionuclides in both LnPO4 and LnVO4 core-shell NPs may enhance the treatment efficacy while minimizing unwanted toxicity. LnVO4 core and core-shell NPs have potential as carriers of short-lived radionuclides for both diagnostic and therapeutic applications. Emission intensities were higher for LnVO4 with respect to LnPO4 NPs, whereas no significant difference was observed in the magnetic susceptibilities. GdVO4 core NPs displayed enhancement of the signal intensity in T1-weighted images. This work evidences the promising application of both LnPO4 and LnVO4 NPs as platforms for targeted radionuclide therapy and multimodal molecular imaging.

<p><font face="TimesNewRomanPSMT"> <p align="left">Natural radioactivity studies have been carried out to study the textural characteristics, heavy mineral composition, provenance, sediment transport, and depositional environment of beach placer deposits. The naturally occurring radionuclides such as properties of beach sands, which reflect the geological characteristics such as transport and sorting processes and the depositional environment. The present work focuses on the radiometric characteristics of beach sand deposits along the west coastof South Africa. Beach sands samples were collected at the Melkbosstrand (MBS) and Ouskip (OSK) beach. The activity concentrations of these radionuclides were determined by high-resolution gamma-ray spectrometry using a high-purity germanium (HPGe) detector in a low-background configuration.</p> </font></p>

Η εργασία αυτή φιλοδοξεί να εκτιμήση την περιβαλλοντική κατάσταση της κεντρικής λιμνοθάλασσας Μεσολογγίου. Προσδιορίσθηκαν οι συγκεντρώσεις των βαρέων μετάλλων του οργανικού άνθρακα, των φυσικών ραδιονουκλιδίων και του Cs-137. 17 δειγματοληπτικές πυρηνοληψίες που εκτελέσθηκαν σε επιλεγμένα σημεία οδήγησαν στον καθορισμό υψηλών συγκεντρώσεων των μετάλλων Zn, Fe.Σε ότι αφορά στα φυσικά ραδιονουκλίδια και το Cs-137 οι τιμές ειδικής ραδιενέργειας ήταν σχετικά υψηλές παρουσιάζοντας σαφείς κατανομές με το βάθος. / This present research estimates the environmental situation of central lagoon Mesolonghi. The concentrations of heavy metals, organic carbon, natural radionuclide and Cs-137 were determined. 17 cores were collected. Geochemical analysis determined high concentrations of metals Zn, Fe. Regarding to natural radionuclides and Cs-137 the concentrations were relatively high presenting explicit distributions with depth.

<p><font face="TimesNewRomanPSMT"> <p align="left">Natural radioactivity studies have been carried out to study the textural characteristics, heavy mineral composition, provenance, sediment transport, and depositional environment of beach placer deposits. The naturally occurring radionuclides such as properties of beach sands, which reflect the geological characteristics such as transport and sorting processes and the depositional environment. The present work focuses on the radiometric characteristics of beach sand deposits along the west coastof South Africa. Beach sands samples were collected at the Melkbosstrand (MBS) and Ouskip (OSK) beach. The activity concentrations of these radionuclides were determined by high-resolution gamma-ray spectrometry using a high-purity germanium (HPGe) detector in a low-background configuration.</p> </font></p>

Baigiamajame magistro darbe nagrinėjama dirbtinės (137Cs) ir gamtinės (40K, 226Ra, 232Th) kilmės radionuklidų ir sunkiųjų metalų (Ni, Cu, Cr, Cd, Pb, Zn) kaupimasis AB „Lietuvos elektrinė“ mazute ir jo degimo proceso atliekose bei šių teršalų sklaida elektrinės įtakos zonoje. Eksperimente naudojamas mazutas, mazuto pelenai, elektrostatinio filtro pelenai, gipsas ir dirvožemis, surinktas elektrinės įtakos zonoje. Visuose bandiniuose gama spektrometrijos būdu išmatuoti radionuklidų savitieji aktyvumai ir atominės absorbcijos būdu išmatuotos sunkiųjų metalų koncentracijos. Gauti rezultatai lyginami skaičiuojant teršalų kiekių santykius tarp mazuto, jo degimo proceso atliekų ir dirvožemio. Vertinami teršalų kiekiai elektrinės atliekų kaupe. Remiantis eksperimentinių tyrimų duomenimis sudarytas radionuklidų ir sunkiųjų metalų sklaidos iš elektrinės kamino modelis. Darbą sudaro septynios dalys: įvadas, tyrimo objekto ir problemos aptarimas, eksperimentinių tyrimų metodika, rezultatų analizė, modeliavimas, bendrosios išvados ir rekomendacijos, literatūros sąrašas. Darbo apimtis – 87 p. be priedų, 19 lentelių, 33 paveikslai. Atskirai pridėti priedai ir moksliniai straipsniai. / In the final thesis is analysed fuel oil burning process waste contamination of artificial (137Cs), naturally occuring (40K, 226Ra, 232Th) radionuclides and heavy metals (Ni, Cu, Cr, Cd, Pb, Zn) at SC „Lietuvos elektrinė“. In the experiment were used samples or fuel oil, fuel oil ash, electrostatic precipitator ash, gypsum and soil. Specific activity of radionuclides was measured using gamma spectrometer and using atomic absorption method were measured concentrations of heavy metals. The results are compared calculating the quantity of pollution between oil, the combustion of waste and soil. Contaminants concentrations valued in power plant’s wastes. Based on experimental data was used power plant stack dispersion model. The thesis consists of seven parts: introduction, discussion of the problem, experimental research methodology, analysis of results, modeling, conclusions, recommendations and list of references. The thesis has 87 pages of text excluding appendixes, 19 tables, 33 figures. Appendixes and scientific articles are added separately.

Η παρούσα διατριβή αναφέρεται στην ανάπτυξη νέων πεπτιδικών αναλόγων μπομπεσίνης (ΒΝ) με απώτερο στόχο την ενδεχόμενη κλινική εφαρμογή τους στο πεδίο της διαγνωστικής ογκολογίας με SPECT (Υπολογιστική Τομογραφία Εκπομπής ενός Φωτονίου, Single-photon emission computed tomography) και PET (Τομογραφία Εκπομπής Ποζιτρονίων, Positron emission tomography). Η ΒΝ αποτελεί έναν εξειδικευμένο πεπτίδιο-προσδέτη για τους υποδοχείς του πεπτιδίου απελευθέρωσης της γαστρίνης (gastrin-releasing peptide receptors, GRPrs), οι οποίοι υπερεκφράζονται στην επιφάνεια διαφόρων τύπων καρκινικών κυττάρων. Οι υποδοχείς GRP δυνητικά θα μπορούσαν να θεωρηθούν ιδανικός στόχος για την απεικόνιση νευροενδοκρινικών όγκων μετά από χορήγηση ραδιοεπισημασμένων παραγώγων ΒΝ, με τεχνικές μοριακής διαγνωστικής, αλλά και για την στοχευμένη θεραπευτική αντιμετώπιση του καρκίνου. Με αυτό τον στόχο σχεδιάστηκαν και συντέθηκαν πεπτιδικά ανάλογα ΒΝ για τα οποία πραγματοποιήθηκε μία σειρά προκλινικών μελετών με σκοπό τη διαμόρφωση και την εφαρμογή ενός πλαισίου διάκρισης των κατάλληλων ραδιοχημικών και ραδιοφαρμακολογικών χαρακτηριστικών τα οποία θα μπορούσαν να οδηγήσουν ένα από αυτά τα υποψήφια διαγνωστικά σκευάσματα του σε κλινικές μελέτες ανίχνευσης του καρκίνου. Μέθοδος: Στα πλαίσια της παρούσας διατριβής σχεδιάστηκαν και συντέθηκαν πεπτιδικά ανάλογα BN, κατάλληλα για επισήμανση με ραδιονουκλίδια, με την παρακάτω γενική δομή: Υ-Χ-ΒΝ(2-14) όπου Υ = ο χηλικός παράγοντας για τη σύμπλεξη του ραδιομετάλλου, Χ = η συνδετική ομάδα και ΒΝ(2-14) το φαρμακοφόρο τμήμα. (a) Προκειμένου να απεικονισθούν όγκοι με SPECT όπου: Υ = [GlyGlyCys-] για τη σύμπλεξη με το 99mTc και το 185/187Re (μη ραδιενεργό), Χ = -(αργινίνη)3-, (BN-A), ή -(ορνιθίνη)3-, (BN-O). (b) Ενώ για τη μοριακή απεικόνιση όγκων με την τεχνική PET, όπου Υ = [c-carboxylic acid-cyclam] για σύμπλεξη με 64Cu, και Χ = -(ορνιθίνη)3-, (BN-C). Σε όλες τις παραπάνω περιπτώσεις χρησιμοποιήθηκε το τμήμα της φυσικής αλληλουχίας του πεπτιδίου μπομπεσίνη, από το 2o εως το 14ο αμινοξύ, σε συνδυασμό με αμινοξική, θετικά φορτισμένη, συνδετική ομάδα (spacer). Τα παραπάνω παράγωγα και τα αντίστοιχα σύμπλοκα τους με τα μέταλλα αρχικά αξιολογήθηκαν χημικά και ραδιοχημικά με διάφορες αναλυτικές μεθόδους. Ακολούθησε η ραδιοφαρμακολογική αξιολόγηση τους με τις παρακάτω in vitro δοκιμασίες: (a) μελέτη σταθερότητας σε δείγματα αίματος, (b) προσδιορισμός της συγγένειας τους με τον GRPr (υπολογισμός τιμών IC50) και (c) του ρυθμού εσωτερικοποίησης/εξωτερικοποίησης σε κύτταρα PC-3 (ανθρώπινου καρκίνου προστάτη). Στη συνέχεια πραγματοποιήθηκαν μελέτες in vivo (βιοκατανομή, απεικόνιση με γ-κάμερα), σε φυσιολογικά ζωικά πειραματικά πρότυπα (ποντίκια, αρουραίους και κουνέλια) και σε πειραματικά πρότυπα καρκίνου (ποντίκια SCID, με όγκους από κύτταρα PC-3). Επιπλέον με βάση τα in vivo αποτελέσματα διεξάχθηκε η φαρμακοκινητική αξιολόγηση τους και ο συσχετισμός μεταξύ δομικών και φαρμακοκινητικών χαρακτηριστικών. Τέλος επιχειρήθηκε η αλλομετρική κλιμάκωση των φαρμακοκινητικών αποτελεσμάτων από τα διάφορα είδη πειραματοζώων στον άνθρωπο. Αποτελέσματα: Για τα παράγωγα τα οποία συντέθηκαν για σύμπλεξη με 99mTc προκειμένου να απεικονισθούν όγκοι με SPECT, παρατηρήθηκαν τα εξής: Τα BN-A και BN-O συμπλέχθηκαν αποτελεσματικά με το 99mTc (απόδοση > 98%), αλλά και το χημικά όμοιο του ρήνιο (μη ραδιενεργό). Κατά τις μελέτες σταθερότητας το παράγωγο 99mTc-BN-O αποδείχθηκε σταθερότερο του 99mTc-BN-Α, (π.χ. πλάσμα του ποντικού σε 5 min επώασης το % άθικτο πεπτίδιο ήταν 44.28 και 42.48, ενώ στο ανθρώπινο πλάσμα σε 1 ώρα επώασης ήταν 63.05 και 60.2 αντίστοιχα). Η συγγένεια πρόσδεσης στον GRPr των παραπάνω παραγώγων, αλλά και των συμπλόκων τους με το μη ραδιενεργό Re, τα οποία προσομοιάζουν τα αντίστοιχα ραδιενεργά σύμπλοκα τους με το 99mTc (IC50, BN-Α, 0.5 ± 0.09, 185/187Re-BN-A, 1.58 ± 0.16, BN-Ο, 0.46 ± 0.04, 185/187Re-BN-Ο, 0.77 ± 0.07 nM), ήταν κοντά στο πρότυπο [Tyr4]-BN (0.45 ± 0.04 nM). Το συνολικό ποσοστό εσωτερικοποίησης των παραπάνω συμπλόκων 99mTc-BN-Α και 99mTc-BN-Ο στα κύτταρα PC-3 ήταν παρόμοιο (~25%), αλλά ο ρυθμός εσωτερικοποίησης τους διέφερε, καθώς χρειάστηκαν 120 min και 60 min για φτάσουν τη μέγιστη τιμή εσωτερικοποίησης αντίστοιχα. Ο ρυθμός εξωτερίκευσης ήταν ο ίδιος. Μετά από 90 min επώασης το ~ 70% της αρχικής ποσότητας πεπτιδίου παραμένει εγκλωβισμένο στα κύτταρα. Από τις μελέτες βιοκατανομής και φαρμακοκινητικής του 99mTc-BN–A και του 99mTc-BN–Ο σε φυσιολογικά ποντίκια φάνηκε ότι και τα δύο ραδιοπεπτίδια απομακρύνονται γρήγορα από το αίμα, καθώς μικρό ποσοστό της χορηγούμενης δόσης (ID)/g (2.61 και 2.76 % αντίστοιχα) παραμένει 30 min μετά τη χορήγηση (p.i.). Η βασική οδός απομάκρυνσης τους από τον οργανισμό ήταν το ουροποιητικό σύστημα καθώς μεγάλο ποσοστό των ραδιοπεπτιδίων εντοπίστηκε στα ούρα 1 h p.i. (64.16 και 56.33 % ID αντίστοιχα). Το γεγονός αυτό συσχετίσθηκε με την παρουσία της θετικά φορτισμένης συνδετικής ομάδας. Η νεφρική απέκκριση επιδιώκεται έναντι της ηπατοχολικής, γιατί με αυτόν τον τρόπο μειώνεται η συσσώρευση της ραδιενέργειας στην άνω κοιλιακή χώρα και διευκολύνεται η εντόπιση όγκων στην περιοχή αυτή. Το 99mTc-BN–A απομακρύνεται ταχύτερα από το αίμα από τα νεφρά και γενικότερα από τον οργανισμό από ότι το 99mTc-BN–Ο, αλλά εμφανίζει μεγαλύτερη συσσώρευση στο ήπαρ (4.43 ± 1.04 και 0.99 ± 0.20 %ID/g, 60 min p.i. αντίστοιχα). Από τις μελέτες βιοκατανομής και απεικόνισης με γ-κάμερα σε ποντίκια SCID με όγκους PC-3 το παράγωγο 99mTc-BN–A εντόπισε αποτελεσματικά τον όγκο. Μετά από πειράματα συγχορήγησης φυσικής ΒΝ παρατηρήθηκε μείωση του ραδιοεπισημασμένου παραγώγου στον όγκο και στο πάγκρεας, τα σημεία στα οποία εντοπίζονται υποδοχείς GRPrs, επιβεβαιώνοντας έτσι την ειδική δέσμευση του ραδιοεπισημασμένου παραγώγου σε αυτούς. Συγκρίνοντας τα παραπάνω αποτελέσματα με το 99mTc-BN–Ο διαπιστώθηκαν καλύτεροι λόγοι διάκρισης από το 99mTc-BN–A στους διάφορους χρόνους μελέτης (π.χ. 60 min p.i. ήταν όγκος/αίμα, 6.67 έναντι 3.62, όγκος/μύες, 14.0 έναντι 5.60, όγκος/ήπαρ, 2.9 έναντι 0.82, αντίστοιχα). Εξαιτίας όλων των παραπάνω αποτελεσμάτων το παράγωγο 99mTc-BN-Ο επιλέχθηκε για περαιτέρω μελέτη. Για το 99mTc-BN-Ο πραγματοποιήθηκαν περαιτέρω in vitro μελέτες σταθερότητας σε πλάσμα αίματος αρουραίων και κουνελιών και in vivo μελέτες βιοκατανομής (απεικόνισης σε γ-καμερα). Παράλληλα πραγματοποιήθηκε και η φαρμακοκινητική ανάλυση των δεδομένων. Επιπλέον επιχειρήθηκε να αντιμετωπισθεί το πρόβλημα της νεφρικής συσσώρευσης του 99mTc-BN-Ο στα νεφρά με τη συγχορήγηση Gelofusine (Gelo). Από τη συγχορήγηση Gelo στα φυσιολογικά (ποντίκια, αρουραίοι) και καρκινικά πειραματικά πρότυπα (ποντίκια SCID με όγκους PC-3) παρατηρήθηκαν ταχύτερη κάθαρση του αίματος και αποβολής από τα νεφρά. Τέλος πραγματοποιήθηκε πρωτότυπη μελέτη αλλομετρικής κλιμάκωση των φαρμακοκινητικών αποτελεσμάτων του 99mTc-BN-Ο με στόχο την πρόβλεψη της συμπεριφοράς του καθώς της συμπεριφοράς παρόμοιων μορίων στον άνθρωπο κατά τη διεξαγωγή κλινικών μελετών. Εξαιτίας των παραπάνω θετικών αποτελεσμάτων αναφορικά με το τμήμα Η2Ν-(ορνιθίνη)3-ΒΝ(2-14) και προκειμένου να επιτευχθεί η βελτιστοποίηση της ικανότητα σύμπλεξής του με ιόντα χαλκού (π.χ. 64Cu για διάγνωση με PET) συνδέθηκε ομοιοπολικά με αυτό ένας νέος χηλικός παράγοντα το c-carboxylic acid cyclam. Από την ομοιοπολική σύζευξη των παραπάνω προέκυψε ένας νέο ανάλογο ΒΝ, το ΒΝ-C. Με τη χρήση διαφόρων αναλυτικών τεχνικών (IR, UV-Vis, ESI-MS, ESR, κρυσταλλογραφία ακτίνων Χ) διαπιστώθηκε ότι τόσο ο c-carboxylic acid cyclam όσο και ΒΝ-C, ο τελικός πεπτιδικός προσδέτης, έχουν την ικανότητα σύμπλεξης με CuII. Το πεπτιδικό παράγωγο BN-C και το σύμπλοκο του με το χαλκό, Cu-BN-C. δοκιμάσθηκαν ως προς τη συγγένεια δέσμευσης τους με τον GRPr σε κυτταρικές καλλιέργειες PC-3 όπου και παρουσίαζαν συγγένεια (IC50 = 0.3 ± 0.03 και 0.33 ± 0.03 nM, αντίστοιχα) παρόμοια με το πρότυπο πεπτίδιο προσδέτη [Tyr4]-BN (0.45 ± 0.04 nM). Συμπέρασμα: Οι παραπάνω μελέτες οριοθετούν ένα γενικότερο πλαίσιο προκλινικού προσδιορισμού εκείνων των ραδιοχημικών και ραδιοφαρμακολογικών in vitro και in vivo ιδιοτήτων, οι οποίες θα μπορούσαν να οδηγήσουν ένα παράγωγο ΒΝ σε περαιτέρω κλινικές μελέτες. Με βάση τα παραπάνω επιλέχθηκε και αναπτύχθηκε ένα πεπτιδικό ανάλογο ΒΝ, το οποίο σε κάθε περίπτωση αποδείχθηκε ότι διαθέτει τον κατάλληλο συνδυασμό των παραπάνω χαρακτηριστικών για περαιτέρω ανάπτυξη ως ραδιοδιαγνωστικό σκεύασμα για SPECT (BN-O) και PET (ΒΝ-C) σε κλινικό επίπεδο. Επιπλέον η φαρμακοκινητική ανάλυση και η αλλομετρική κλιμάκωση των παραπάνω αποτελεσμάτων συνεισφέρουν σημαντικά στην αύξηση της πιθανότητας μελλοντικής κλινικής εφαρμογής των παραπάνω παραγώγων στον άνθρωπο. / The present Thesis refers to the development of new peptidic bombesin (BN) analogs for application in the field of tumor diagnosis with the SPECT (Single-photon emission computed tomography) and PET (Positron emission tomography) techniques. The BN peptide is a specific ligand for the gastrin-releasing peptide receptors (GRPrs), which are over-expressed on the surface of various types of tumor cells. GRPrs can be considered as an ideal target for radiolabeled BN analogues in the molecular diagnosis of neuro-endocrine tumors as well as in the targeted treatment of cancer. Taking the above into consideration, three BN analogues were designed and synthesized as potential molecular diagnostics of tumors. Thus, a series of preclinical studies were conducted in order to find out the best candidate for further development in clinical studies. Methods: All the BN analogues of the present study can be described by the following general structure: Υ-Χ-ΒΝ(2-14) Where Y = the chelator group for the radionuclide, X = a spacer group and BN(2-14) = the pharmacophore group. (a) For the diagnosis of tumors with SPECT: Υ = [GlyGlyCys-], suitable for the complexation of 99mTc and 185/187Re and X= -(arginine)3-, (BN-A), or -(ornithine)3-, (BN-O). (b) Further on, for tumor diagnosis with PET: Υ = [c-carboxylic acid-cyclam] suitable for the complexation of 64Cu, και Χ = -(ornithine)3-, (BN-C). For all the above cases the part from the 2nd to the 14th amino acid of the naturally occurring BN was used, in combination with a spacer group composed of three positively charged amino acids. The amino acids were either naturally occurring (arginine) or not (ornithine). The above BN analogues as well as their metal complexes were chemically and radiochemically analyzed and evaluated in vitro. The in vitro evaluation of the BN derivatives included assays for the determination of (a) their stability in blood samples, (b) their affinity for the GRPrs (by the calculation of their IC50 values), (c) as well as of their internalization and externalization rates in PC-3 cell (human prostate cancer cell line) cultures. Additionally a series of in vivo assays were conducted including: biodistibution studies in normal (mice, rats, rabbits) and in experimental cancer animal models (SCID mice with PC3 tumors). For the later in addition to the biodistribution tumor imaging studies were carried out using an experimental small animal gamma camera. Based on the results of the in vivo studies, a series of pharmacokinetic analyses were performed and the results were correlated with the structural characteristics of the BN analogues. Finally, the results from the pharmacokinetic analyses of the three different animal species, (mouse, rat, rabbit) were combined and scaled up for a human of 70 Kg, by using the allometric approach. Results: The BN analogues BN-A and BN-O, which were designed for application in tumor imaging with SPECT, were able to form stable complexes with 99mTc (in high yield > 98%), as well as with Re (non radioactive). The two elements 99mTc and Re belong to the same group of the Periodic Table of elements and thus they are considered to have similar chemical properties. During the in vitro stability assays 99mTc-BN-O prove to be more stable than the 99mTc-BN-Α i.e. the % percentages of intact peptide for mouse plasma (after 5 min incubation) were 44.28 and 42.48 %, while for human plasma the percentages of intact peptide (after 1h of incubation) were 63.05 and 60.2 respectively. The affinities (IC50 values) of BN-Α (0.5 ± 0.09 nM), and BN-Ο (0.46 ± 0.04 nM), as well as of their non radioactive complexes with Rhenium 185/187Re-BN-A, 1(.58 ± 0.16 nM) and 185/187Re-BN-Ο (0.77 ± 0.07 nM) were similar to the one of the control peptide [Tyr4]-BN (0.45 ± 0.04 nM). Although the total amount of internalized radiolabeled peptide was the same for both 99mTc-BN-Α and 99mTc-BN-O (~25%), their rates of internalization differed. The ornithine-spacer analogue, 99mTc-BN-O, internalized a lot faster (60 min for maximum internalization plateau) than the arginine-spacer analogue, 99mTc-BN-Α (120 min for maximum internalization plateau). The externalization rates for both analogues were the same, with ~ 70% of the initially internalized radiolabeled peptide remaining inside the cells even after 90 min of incubation. From the biodistribution and pharmacokinetic studies of 99mTc-BN–A and 99mTc-BN–Ο a fast blood clearance was observed for both peptides, with small amounts of the initial dose remaining in the blood stream 30 min p.i. (2.61 and 2.76 % ID/g, respectively). The main clearance route throughout the body in both cases was the urinary system and high percentages of the radiolabeled peptides were detected in the urine 1 h p.i (64.16 and 56.33 % ID respectively). The latter was related to the presence of the positively charged spacer group. A clearance through the urinary system is preferred instead of the hepatobiliary system since in that way the decrease of the upper abdominal region background radiation is achieved. Although the arginine-spacer analogue 99mTc-BN–A was cleared from the kidneys and the body with higher rates than 99mTc-BN–Ο, it showed a higher liver accumulation than the latter (4.43 ± 1.04 and 0.99 ± 0.20 %ID/g, 60 min p.i. respectively). Both in the biodistribution and in the gamma-camera tumor-imaging studies the BN analogue 99mTc-BN–A was able to efficiently locate the tumour. During the GRPrs blocking studies the amount of 99mTc-BN–A was reduced both in the tumour and in the pancreas, where the GRPrs are located, proving thus the specific binding of 99mTc-BN–A to those receptors. Comparing the tumor/normal tissue contrast ratios between 99mTc-BN–Ο and 99mTc-BN–A the ornithine spacer analogue proved a better choice since it presented greater values (i.e. 60 min p.i. tumor/blood, 6.67 vs 3.62, tumor/muscle, 14.0 vs 5.60, tumor/liver, 2.9 vs 0.82, respectively). According to all the above results 99mTc-BN-Ο was selected between the two SPECT tumor imaging agent candidates for further studies. For 99mTc-BN-Ο additional in vitro stability assays were conducted in rats and rabbits plasma, which were followed by in vivo biodistribution studies in normal rats and imaging studies in normal rabbits. The in vivo data were analyzed with the appropriate pharmacokinetic approaches. In an effort to achieve a faster clearance of 99mTc-BN-Ο from the kidneys a new approach was tested by its co-injection with Gelofusine (Gelo). During the Gelo co-injection studies in normal mice, in rats as well as in SCID mice with PC-3 tumors a faster renal clearance was observed. Finally by combining the in vivo results of 99mTc-BN-Ο from the three different animal species (mice, rats, rabbits) the allometric scale up of the pharmacokinetic parameters was achieved and the prediction of those parameters for a man of 70 kg. The results of latter study could probably be extended to predict the pharmacokinetic profile of other similar molecules in the preclinical stage of development. Due to promising results of obtained from the BN analogue with the ornithine spacer, Η2Ν-(ornithine)3-ΒΝ(2-14), and in order to improve its ability to form complexes with copper radionuclides i.e. 64Cu, which are suitable for PET imaging, a new chelator group was introduced into the peptide sequence. The chelator group c-carboxylic acid cyclam was covalently attached to the peptide chain Η2Ν-(ornithine)3-ΒΝ(2-14) to give a new bombesin analogue ΒΝ-C. The chelator group and the new BN analogue were able to form complexes with cold copper fast and under mild conditions. The copper complexes of the above molecules were analyzed with a variety of techniques like IR, UV-Vis, ESI-MS, ESR, X ray crystallography. Additionally both the BN analogue BN-C and its complex with copper Cu-BN-C were tested for their affinity for GRPrs in PC-3 cell lines, where it was found that their IC50 values of both were similar (IC50 = 0.3 ± 0.03 και 0.33 ± 0.03 nM, respectively) to the control peptide [Tyr4]-BN (0.45 ± 0.04 nM). Conclusion: The above studies can be considered the essential parts of a discrimination process of the ideal radiochemical and radiopharmacological characteristics, which could lead a BN analogue to clinical trials. According to the results of the above preclinical studies a suitable BN analogue was selected for further clinical development as a tumor imaging agent with SPECT (BN-O) as well as PET (ΒΝ-C). Additionally the pharmacokinetic analysis in three different animal species and allometric scale up of those parameters for the human will enhance the probability of its further application in clinical trials.

The utilisation of nuclear energy entails, like any other human activity, risk of occurrence of accidents and emergencies. On Saturday 26th April 1986 early morning in the fourth block of the Chernobyl nuclear power plant in Ukraine occurred the biggest industrial accident in the peace usage of nuclear energy. It led to a vast leakage of radioactive debris to the wide surrounding area. An accident of such extent has never been thought possible before and it has surprised national authorities responsible for emergency preparedness practically in all counties operating nuclear power plants. It was crucial to prepare and introduce many countermeasures to restrict exposure of persons and environment to radiation. The most affected countries have been today{\crq}s Byelorussia, Russia and Ukraine. Although international instructions and criteria for failure actions had existed even before the Chernobyl accident, the experience with their application was very limited. Needless to say, some short-term countermeasures had been neglected or insufficiently realised. Inhabitants were not informed about the accident in time and therefore they hid late. Also iodine prophylaxis did not start in time, which led to unnecessarily high irradiation of thyroid gland. The evacuation was, in view of decreasing external exposure, executed within possibilities efficiently. As for the long-term countermeasures related not only to the liquidation of the aftermath of the accident in the area of the nuclear power plant but especially the decontamination works in residential units and on contaminated soils, regulation of food chains and relocation of persons from the affected areas, preventive and health care of the inhabitants living in the contaminated territory - these measures were massive in scope and in principle mostly reasoned and effective. Unfortunately, the effectiveness of some of these measures was somewhat deteriorated by the fact they were introduced area-wide (only on the basis of the surface contamination and not on the estimation of exposure from whole-body measurements), were not fully substantiated and later had to by cancelled for economical reasons. Not only economical factors play an important role in the planning and application of the countermeasures (mainly long-term ones). Without question it is necessary to secure that the measures can be applied in the contaminated areas in view of their effectiveness in sufficient extent for time long enough and after a thorough evaluation of all pros and cons, expenses and gains. As well, it is needed to take into consideration the effect of social and psychological factors, where in practise a satisfactory progress has not been made yet. Many studies proved that the introduction of countermeasures affects the increase of psychosocial tension among the involved people. This negative attitude results from the public{\crq}s lack of information about radiation and about the possibilities of its reduction and consequent fear and anxiety due to the uncertainty regarding future. Because of the concealment of information about the Chernobyl accident, also distrust of citizens against authorities has remained to be a problem. However, the approach of public is very important in regard to the effectiveness of countermeasures. In order that the measures would be accepted as well as possible, it is needed to secure corresponding education programs and to engage public into discussions and decision-making within the introduced measures.

Submitted by Fabio Sobreira Campos da Costa (fabio.sobreira@ufpe.br) on 2017-04-27T13:49:02Z No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 1232 bytes, checksum: 66e71c371cc565284e70f40736c94386 (MD5) ISABEL CRISTINA GUERRA SPACOV -TESE DE DOUTORADO - PROTEN.pdf: 6093450 bytes, checksum: ace1719e245c067e138dff5b29870857 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-04-27T13:49:02Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 1232 bytes, checksum: 66e71c371cc565284e70f40736c94386 (MD5) ISABEL CRISTINA GUERRA SPACOV -TESE DE DOUTORADO - PROTEN.pdf: 6093450 bytes, checksum: ace1719e245c067e138dff5b29870857 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016-09-09 / A Província Pegmatítica da Borborema no Nordeste é uma das mais importantes áreas geoeconômicas do Brasil. A atividade de mineração, entretanto, pode elevar a exposição de trabalhadores do setor, às radiações ionizantes. A exposição às radiações no setor mineral depende de uma série de fatores, incluindo o tipo de mina e geologia local, com elevadas concentrações de radionuclídeos que compoem as séries do 238U e do 232Th. Este trabalho teve como objetivo realizar a dosimetria radiométrica ambiental externa, estimando a taxa de dose efetiva em doze minas de extração de caulim, granito, feldspato e scheelita, localizadas nos municípios de Junco do Seridó-PB, Salgadinho-PB, Santa Luzia-PB, São José do Sabugi-PB, Equador-RN e Santana do Seridó-RN. O monitoramento foi executado utilizando um espectrômetro gama portátil NaI(Tl) e BGO, com medições realizadas no ar e os resultados obtidos foram comparados a dose efetiva média mundial da exposição à fontes naturais de radiação, de 2,40 mSv/a, baseada no relatório da UNSCEAR. O valor obtido da média aritmética das taxas de doses efetivas foi de 3,34 mSv/a e desvio padrão de 2,47 mSv/a para as minas em conjunto, estando acima do valor de referência mundial, bem como as taxas de doses efetivas das minas de granito (5,80 mSv/a), feldspato (3,28 mSv/a) e scheelita (2,80 mSv/a). Com base nesse estudo, foi evidenciada uma maior radioatividade ambiental na mina de granito (E), em Santa Luzia-PB (11,60 mSv/a), estando superior, cerca de cinco vezes, ao valor de referência mundial. É, portanto, considerada uma área de elevado backgound natural, com taxa de dose variando de 5 a 20 mSv/a, assim como a zona rural de São José de Espinharas-PB, onde se encontra a jazida de urânio com média de 10,83 mSv/a, ambos na região do Seridó. Por sua vez, apesar do valor médio da taxa de dose efetiva das minas de caulim (1,78 mSv/a) estarem abaixo do valor de referência mundial, a caracterização radiométrica da mina de caulim (D) em Salgadinho-PB, se faz necessária, tendo em vista o valor de 2,94 mSv/a. Desta forma, recomenda-se também, estudos epidemiológicos de casocontrole, coorte e correlação geográfica, que tratem de padrões, causas e quantificação dos valores obtidos na dosimetria ambiental deste estudo, bem como da relação da incidência e prevalência das doenças causadas pela exposição em áreas de elevado background natural. / The Pegmatitic Borborema Province located in the Northeast of Brazil, is one of the most important geo-economic areas in the country. The mining activity, however, can increase the exposure of workers to ionizing radiation. Exposure to radiation in the mineral industry depends on a number of factors, including the type of mine and local geology, with high concentrations of radionuclides which compose the series of 238U and 232Th. This study aimed to carry out the external environmental radiometric dosimetry, estimating the effective dose rate in twelve mines of kaolin, granite, feldspar and scheelite extraction, located in Junco do Seridó-PB, Salgadinho-PB, Santa Luzia-PB, São José do Sabugi-PB, Equador-RN and Santana do Seridó-RN. The monitoring was performed using a spectrometer portable gamma NaI(Tl) and BGO, with measurements in the air and the results were compared to the global average effective dose of exposure to natural sources of radiation of 2.40 mSv/y, based on the UNSCEAR report. The obtained value of the arithmetic mean of the effective dose rate was 3.34 mSv/y from the twelve mines, being above the global reference value, as well as the rates of effective doses of granite mine (5.80 mSv/y), feldspar (3.28 mSv/y) and scheelite (2.80 mSv/y). Based on this study, greater environmental radioactivity in granite mine (E) was observed in Santa Luzia-PB (11.60 mSv/y), being higher, about five times to the global reference value. It is therefore considered an area of high natural background with dose rate ranging from 5 to 20 mSv/y, as well as the São José de Espinharas-PB, where the uranium deposit is located, with an average of 10.83 mSv/y, both in the Seridó region. Meanwhile, although the average value of the effective dose rate of kaolin mine (1.78 mSv/y) is below the world reference value, the radiometric characteristics of the kaolin mine (D) Salgadinho-PB are necessary, in view of the value of 2.94 mSv/y. Thus, also recommended are studies, epidemiological case-control, cohort and geographical correlation, to address patterns, causes and quantization of values obtained in the environmental dosimetry of this study, as well as the relationship of the incidence and prevalence of diseases caused by exposure in areas of high natural background.

Magister Scientiae - MSc / Natural radioactivity studies have been carried out to study the textural characteristics, heavy mineral composition, provenance, sediment transport, and depositional environment of beach placer deposits. The naturally occurring radionuclides such as 232Th, 238U and 40K are used as the tracers of the mineralogical properties of beach sands, which reflect the geological characteristics such as transport and sorting processes and the depositional environment. The present work focuses on the radiometric characteristics of beach sand deposits along the west coast of South Africa. Beach sands samples were collected at the Melkbosstrand (MBS) and Ouskip (OSK) beach. The activity concentrations of these radionuclides were determined by high-resolution gamma-ray spectrometry using a high-purity germanium (HPGe) detector in a low-background configuration.