Le travail présenté ici a pour objet l’étude de la zone de recirculation qui se développe à l’aval d’un élargissement brusque ayant lieu dans un canal à surface libre, avec une attention particulière portée sur la longueur de recirculation. Ce travail consiste en une approche combinée expérimentale et numérique. L’analyse dimensionnelle ainsi que les travaux préliminaires antérieurs à cette thèse montrent que la longueur de recirculation adimensionnée dépend de 3 paramètres que sont : le nombre de frottement S, la hauteur d’eau adimensionnée par la taille de l’élargissement h/d et enfin le rapport géométrique de l’élargissement Rb. Cependant, faire varier dans les expériences S ou h/d sans affecter l’autre paramètre s’avère être une tâche très délicate qui a été négligée dans les études précédentes. En utilisant cette même approche, les résultats présentés ici font état d’une forme de cloche très inattendue de la courbe : L/d= f (S). Ces résultats sont en fort désaccord avec ceux de la littérature. Afin d’améliorer notre approche et de faire varier S et h/d indépendamment, une campagne de modélisation numérique 3D est menée et prouve que L/d dépend en fait des deux paramètres considérés S et h/d et que la forme de cloche résulte des influences opposées de ces deux paramètres. De plus, l’analyse de la couche de mélange qui prend place entre la zone de recirculation et l’écoulement principal, mesurée expérimentalement pour 4 écoulements à différentes valeurs de S et h/d montre que la longueur de la zone de recirculation est gouvernée par le confinement latéral dû à la paroi latérale et à la taille des cellules turbulentes advectée le long de la couche de mélange. Pour aller plus loin, les bilans de quantité de mouvement et d’énergie à l’échelle de l’écoulement dans son ensemble montrent que i) la force de cisaillement exercée le long de la couche de mélange est négligeable par rapport aux autres forces mises en jeu et ii) que la réelle signification de S est de quantifier l’intensité du frottement du fond à l’échelle de l’écoulement global intervenant dans ces bilans. Les différents régimes d’écoulement qui peuvent être rencontrés dépendent donc: i) selon la valeur du nombre de frottement S l’écoulement peut être frictionnel (S élevé) ou non-frictionnel (S faible) et ii) selon la valeur de la hauteur d’eau adimensionnelle, l’écoulement peut être confiné verticalement (faible valeur de h/d) ou non-confiné (forte valeur de h/d). Une corrélation empirique permettant d’estimer la longueur de la zone de recirculation L/d en fonction des paramètres S, Rb and h/d est finalement obtenue. Elle s’avère être en bon accord avec les calculs numériques et les mesures expérimentales. / The present research focuses on the recirculation zone developing downstream of an expansion in a shallow open-channel flow with a specific attention on its length. The work consists of combined experimental and numerical approaches. The dimensional analysis and previous studies permit to express the dimensionless recirculation length as a function of 3 parameters: the friction number S, the ratio between the water depth and the expansion step h/d and the geometrical aspect ratio Rb. Nevertheless, varying either S or h/d on the experimental set-up without affecting the other is a complicated task which was not performed by previous studies. Following this approach permitted to obtain an unexpected bell shape for the L/d=f(S) curve, differing form the literature results. In order to improve the approach and vary S and h/d independently, a 3D numerical campaign was performed and proved that L/d actually depends both on S and h/d parameters and that the bell shape is in fact the consequence of the opposite influence of both parameters. Moreover, the precise experimental analysis of themixing layer at the frontier between the main flow and the recirculation for flows with different S and h/d values showed that the recirculation length is governed by the lateral confinement due to the reattachment wall and the size of the eddies present in the mixing layer. Hence, an integral approach is adopted, using balances of momentum and of energy at the whole flow scale, showing: i) that the shear force exerted along the mixing layer is negligible compared to the other forces and ii) that the meaning of S parameter is to quantify the intensity of the bottom friction of the whole flow on these balance. The following regimes can thus be encountered: i) according to the bed friction S values, the flow can be non-frictional (small S) or frictional (large S) and ii) according to the relative water depth, the flow can be vertically unconfined (large h/d) or confined (small h/d). An empirical correlation permitting to estimate the recirculation length L/d as a function of S, Rb and h/d is finally obtained and appears to fairly fit the numerical calculations and experimental measurements.

Oxygen-diluted Combustion (OdC) technology has evolved from the concept of Excess Enthalpy Combustion and is characterized by reactants of low oxygen concentration and high temperature. Recent advances in this technology have demonstrated significant energy savings, high and uniform thermal field, low pollution, and the possibility for downsizing the equipment for a range of furnace applications. Moreover, the technology has shown promise for wider applications in various processes and power industries. The objectives of this thesis are to analyze the thermodynamic aspects of this novel combustion technology and to quantify the enhancement in efficiency and heat transfer inside a furnace in order to explore the potentials for reduced thermodynamic irreversibility of a combustion process and reduced energy consumption in an industrial furnace. Therefore, theoretical and experimental investigations were carried out. The 2nd law of thermodynamics analyses of OdC systems have been carried out for cases in which the oxidizer is either oxygen (Flameless-oxy-fuel) or air (High Temperature Air Combustion, HiTAC). The analyses demonstrate the possibilities of reducing thermodynamic irreversibility of combustion by considering an oxygen-diluted combustion process that utilizes both gas- and/or heat-recirculation. Furthermore, the results showed that an oxygen-diluted combustion system that utilizes oxygen as an oxidizer, in place of air, results in higher 1st and 2nd law efficiencies. Mathematical models for heat regenerators were developed to be designing tools for maximized heat recovery. These models were verified by heat performance experiments carried out on various heat regenerators. Furthermore, experiments were performed in a semi-industrial test furnace. It was equipped with various regenerative burning systems to establish combustion and heat transfer conditions prevailing in an industrial furnace operating based on HiTAC. The tests were carried out at seven firing configurations, two conventional and five HiTAC configurations, for direct and indirect heating systems. Measurements of energy balance were performed on the test furnace at various configurations in order to obtain the 1st law efficiency. Moreover, local measurements of temperature, gas composition, and heat fluxes in the semi-industrial test furnace were performed to find out the main characteristics of HiTAC flame and the effects of these characteristics on the heating potential, i.e., useful heating in the furnace. In the case of HiTAC, these measurements showed uniformities of chemistry, temperature, temperature fluctuation, and heat fluxes profiles. The values of fluctuations in temperature were small. The high speed jets of the fuel and air penetrated deep into the furnace. The fuel gradually disappeared while intermediate species gradually appeared in relatively high concentrations and at broader regions inside the furnace. These findings indicate: a large reaction zone, low specific combustion intensity in the flame, low specific fuel energy release, and high heat release from this large flame. In addition to the thermodynamic limitations to the maximum temperature of the Oxygen-diluted Combustion, the low specific energy release of the fuel and the high heat release from the flame to its surroundings cause this uniform and relatively moderate temperature profile in a HiTAC flame, consequently suppressing thermal-NO formation. Heat flux and energy balance measurements showed that heating potential is significantly increased in the case of HiTAC compared to that in the conventional case, implying much more energy savings than the apparent heat recovery from the heat regenerators, and consequently much less pollutants emissions. Therefore, it is certain that this large HiTAC flame emits more thermal radiation to its surroundings than the conventional flame does, in spite of the moderate-uniform temperature profile of the flame. This intense heat flux was more uniform in all HiTAC configurations, including the indirect heating configuration, than that of the conventional-air combustion configuration. / QC 20101011

<p>Oxygen-diluted Combustion (OdC) technology has evolved from the concept of Excess Enthalpy Combustion and is characterized by reactants of low oxygen concentration and high temperature. Recent advances in this technology have demonstrated significant energy savings, high and uniform thermal field, low pollution, and the possibility for downsizing the equipment for a range of furnace applications. Moreover, the technology has shown promise for wider applications in various processes and power industries.</p><p>The objectives of this thesis are to analyze the thermodynamic aspects of this novel combustion technology and to quantify the enhancement in efficiency and heat transfer inside a furnace in order to explore the potentials for reduced thermodynamic irreversibility of a combustion process and reduced energy consumption in an industrial furnace. Therefore, theoretical and experimental investigations were carried out.</p><p>The 2nd law of thermodynamics analyses of OdC systems have been carried out for cases in which the oxidizer is either oxygen (Flameless-oxy-fuel) or air (High Temperature Air Combustion, HiTAC). The analyses demonstrate the possibilities of reducing thermodynamic irreversibility of combustion by considering an oxygen-diluted combustion process that utilizes both gas- and/or heat-recirculation. Furthermore, the results showed that an oxygen-diluted combustion system that utilizes oxygen as an oxidizer, in place of air, results in higher 1st and 2nd law efficiencies.</p><p>Mathematical models for heat regenerators were developed to be designing tools for maximized heat recovery. These models were verified by heat performance experiments carried out on various heat regenerators.</p><p>Furthermore, experiments were performed in a semi-industrial test furnace. It was equipped with various regenerative burning systems to establish combustion and heat transfer conditions prevailing in an industrial furnace operating based on HiTAC. The tests were carried out at seven firing configurations, two conventional and five HiTAC configurations, for direct and indirect heating systems.</p><p>Measurements of energy balance were performed on the test furnace at various configurations in order to obtain the 1st law efficiency. Moreover, local measurements of temperature, gas composition, and heat fluxes in the semi-industrial test furnace were performed to find out the main characteristics of HiTAC flame and the effects of these characteristics on the heating potential, i.e., useful heating in the furnace. In the case of HiTAC, these measurements showed uniformities of chemistry, temperature, temperature fluctuation, and heat fluxes profiles. The values of fluctuations in temperature were small. The high speed jets of the fuel and air penetrated deep into the furnace. The fuel gradually disappeared while intermediate species gradually appeared in relatively high concentrations and at broader regions inside the furnace. These findings indicate: a large reaction zone, low specific combustion intensity in the flame, low specific fuel energy release, and high heat release from this large flame. In addition to the thermodynamic limitations to the maximum temperature of the Oxygen-diluted Combustion, the low specific energy release of the fuel and the high heat release from the flame to its surroundings cause this uniform and relatively moderate temperature profile in a HiTAC flame, consequently suppressing thermal-NO formation.</p><p>Heat flux and energy balance measurements showed that heating potential is significantly increased in the case of HiTAC compared to that in the conventional case, implying much more energy savings than the apparent heat recovery from the heat regenerators, and consequently much less pollutants emissions. Therefore, it is certain that this large HiTAC flame emits more thermal radiation to its surroundings than the conventional flame does, in spite of the moderate-uniform temperature profile of the flame. This intense heat flux was more uniform in all HiTAC configurations, including the indirect heating configuration, than that of the conventional-air combustion configuration.</p>

Le rejet des nutriments (phosphates et nitrates) issues des eaux usées domestiques entraînent la dégradation des écosystèmes (74 % du territoire français concerné en 2006). Compte tenu de la situation, l’Etat français a promulgué la Loi sur l’Eau et les Milieux Aquatiques le 30décembre 2006 qui vise à atteindre le « bon état écologique des eaux et des milieux aquatiques » d’ici 2015. Cette notion bien que difficilement intégrable a généré des normes plus strictes pour les stations d’épuration en termes de rejet de nutriments vers le milieu récepteur (jusque 15 mg NTOT.L-1 et 2 mg PTOT.L-1). Depuis la fin des années 1990, la technologie des filtres plantés de roseaux (FPR) est de plus en plus employée(> 2500 unités en 2012) pour le traitement des eaux usées domestiques des petites collectivités inférieures à 2000 Equivalent-Habitants. Cependant, des limites de traitement existent sur les concentrations résiduelles en azote (rejet de 70-80 mg NTOT.L-1) et en phosphore (rejet> 10 mg PTOT.L-1), en vue de répondre à la réglementation future. Ce travail a eu pour objectif de mettre en oeuvre des améliorations telles que la recirculation sur un étage de traitement pour le traitement de l’azote d’une part et l’emploi de matériaux réactifs pour piéger le phosphore d’autre part. La démarche scientifique expérimentale déployée a consisté à suivre des pilotes sur site réel et en laboratoire pendant 2 années. Le suivi des performances épuratoires et hydrauliques a été réalisé au cours du temps. Pour l’azote, 2 FPR (2,5 m²) garnis de schiste expansé (Mayennite®) ont été alimentés en effluent brut. L’effet de la hauteur de saturation en eau dans la partie drainante ainsi que l’effet de la recirculation ont été étudiés. Les résultats obtenus ont montré : une couche saturée à 38 % (rapporté à la hauteur totale) et un ratio de recirculation de 100 % permettent une meilleure élimination de la matière particulaire-carbonée (Arrêté du22 juin 2007) et de l’azote (< 20 mg NTK.L-1 ; < 45 mgNTOT.L-1). Deux laitiers de four à arc électrique ont été sélectionnés pour le traitement du phosphore. Ceux-ci ont été mis en œuvre dans 5 colonnes (6 L) en laboratoire alimentées en effluent synthétique en phosphore puis secondaire et dans 4 filtres réactifs pilote (0,3 m² ; 34 L) à flux horizontal sous surfacique alimentés en effluent secondaire. Il ressort de ces expériences: (i) des disparités existent entre les deux échelles en termes de performances (< 2 mg P.L-1 pendant 20 mois en colonne et variation saisonnière des performances en pilote) et mécanismes épuratoires (adsorption/précipitation P-Caen colonne ; P-Ca + P-Fe en pilote), (ii) l’augmentation de la température (> 15 °C) et/ou du temps de séjour (48h et plus) améliore la cinétique d’élimination du phosphore à échelle pilote et (iii) l’implantation d’un filtre réactif garni de laitier de four à arc électrique est limité par le degré de traitement souhaité et la distance du futur chantier (coût du transport). / Nutrient (phosphorus and nitrogen) discharges from wastewater lead to water quality degradation (74 % of the total French territory in 2006). According to the actual situation, the French government has adopted a Water Framework on December 30, 2006 to achieve a“good ecological status of water” in 2015. Therefore,more stringent standards on nutrients removal for raw wastewater treatment plants are expected (down to 15mg TN.L-1 and 2 mg TP.L-1). However, standards actually remain under the responsibility of departmental authorities according to the water quality of the receiving environment. Since 1990s, Vertical Flow Constructed Wetlands(VFCWs) have been more and more popular in treating raw domestic wastewater for small collectivities of less than 2000 person equivalent (> 2500 units in 2012). However, nitrogen and phosphorus removal are limited in VFCWs (70-80 mg TN.L-1; > 10 mg TP.L-1) according to the new legislation. The aim of this work was on the one hand to implement a recirculation of treated effluent on a VFCW for better nitrogen removal and on the other to use reactive materials to improve phosphorus removal. The experimental scientific approach consisted in monitoring both laboratory and field pilot scale systems under process conditions during 2 years. Treatment and hydraulic performances were monitored over time. Two VFCWs (2,5 m²) filled with expanded schist (Mayennite®) were fed with raw domestic wastewater. The effect of a saturated layer and of the recirculation of treated effluent were studied. Results showed that 38 % of a saturated layer and 100 % of recirculation enabled to improve nitrogen treatment performances (< 20 mgTKN.L-1; < 45 mg TN.L-1) and to meet the French standard D4. Electric arc furnace slags were selected as reactive materials to improve phosphorus treatment performance of the VFCWs in laboratory and field pilot scale systems. Five laboratory-scale column experiments (6L) were fed with a phosphorus synthetic effluent then with a secondary effluent. Four horizontal subsurface flow active filters (0,3 m²; 34 L) were fed with a secondary effluent. The main results showed : (i)differences exist between laboratory and pilot scale regarding treatment performance (< 2 mg P.L-1 during20 months in the laboratory ; seasonal variations at pilot scale) and removal mechanisms (adsorption/precipitation Ca-P in laboratory ; Ca-P + Fe-P at pilot scale), (ii) an increase of temperature (> 15°C) and/or hydraulic retention time (more than 2 days) improved the kinetics of phosphorus removal at pilot scale, (iii) the active filter implementing is limited by the discharge standard required (> 3 mg PTOT.L-1) and the distance to the steel factory (transport costs).

Le travail réalisé dans le cadre de cette thèse en co-tutelle concerne deux domaines d’étude de l'interaction fluide-structure. Le premier relevant du Génie Minier traite de l'interaction entre une grille mobile au sein d'un sluice et de l'écoulement confiné associé. Le second relevant de l'Hydrodynamique fondamentale porte sur l'interaction d'un cylindre monté sur appuis souples et un écoulement à surface libre en présence de fond. Notre travail contribue à l’étude des écoulements confinés à surface libre par une approche expérimentale. Nous avons couplé des techniques de visualisation par caméra CCD, de mesures de champs de vitesse par PIV et d'efforts hydrodynamiques pour qualifier la dynamique des objets en mouvement dans l'écoulement. Les méthodes et dispositifs expérimentaux sont alors appliqués à l'étude de l'écoulement autour de deux maquettes simplifiées d'un JIG à grille mobile puis à celui du cylindre vibrant sous l'effet de l'écoulement. L’acquisition par PIV suivi des traitements statistique multi-variables par POD nous a permis d'étudier l'évolution des zones de recirculation dans le compartiment ainsi que le champ de vitesse instationnaire. L’étude expérimentale a été complétée par une simulation numérique par ANSYS14.5 pour la maquette de JIG et par un modèle numérique d’oscillation du sillage pour le cylindre. Ces travaux nous ont permis de mettre en évidence une technique simple pour mettre en mouvement, dans un sluice, un filet attaché à un cylindre et d'étudier les effets du confinement sur un cylindre vibrant en présence de surface libre. / The work realized under this co-supervised thesis concerns two study areas of fluid-structure interaction. The first concerned the Mineral Engineering and deals with the interaction between a moving grate in a sluice and the confined flow associated. The second concerns the fundamental Hydrodynamics and deals with the interaction of a cylinder mounted on flexible supports and a free surface flow in presence of plane wall. Our work contributes to the study a confined free surface flow by experimental approach. We coupled techniques of CCD camera visualization, velocity fields measurements by PIV and hydrodynamic forces to qualify the dynamics of structure motion in the flow. Experimental methods and devices are applied to the study the flow around two simplified models of a moving JIG grate and then to study a vibrating cylinder due to flow. Treatments of PIV data acquisitions by multivariable statistical POD enabled us to describe evolution of recirculation zones in the compartment and unsteady velocity field. Experimental study was completed by a numerical simulation of Jig model by using ANSYS14.5 and a numerical wake oscillator model for the case of the cylinder. This work highlighted a simple technique to give motion, in a sluice, a attached net to a cylinder and to study effects of free surface flow confinement on a vibrating cylinder

Si généralement, les variations de sections en travers des rivières naturelles ou anthropisées sont progressives et continues, au droit de certains biefs, des obstacles transversaux et discontinus (naturels ou artificiels) peuvent partiellement ou totalement bloquer les plaines d’inondation. L’écoulement dans la plaine d’inondation est dès lors contracté par l’obstacle, qui promeut le développement de zones de recirculation de part et d’autre de l’obstacle, entraînant une réduction de la section d’écoulement et la génération d’échanges de masse entre lits qui viennent se superposer aux interactions turbulentes. Nous nous sommes intéressés à la modélisation physique de ces écoulements et nous avons particulièrement étudié les distorsions introduites par l’obstacle sur la turbulence dans l’écoulement. Ce travail est basé sur de nouvelles expériences menées dans deux canaux à lit composé. Un jeu complet de données d’écoulements rapidement variés en présence d’un épi dans la plaine d’inondation. Les effets sur les paramètres hydrauliques de la superposition des deux problématiques que sont (i) les écoulements en géométries composées et (ii) les écoulements rapidement variés au voisinage d’un obstacle ont ensuite été analysés. Finalement, les processus physiques dominant dans ces écoulements ont été identifiés / If in natural or anthropized rivers, the river cross-section generally gradually and continuously varies, transversal and discontinuous obstacles either natural or artificial may partially or totally block off floodplains. The flow overbanking in the floodplain is therefore contracted by this obstacle which then promotes two recirculation zones of both sides of the obstacle, resulting in a reduction of the flow section and in the generation of strong mass exchange between channels that superimposes to the classical turbulent interactions. New experiments are conducted in two different compound channels: rapidly varied flows in compound channel with a groyne set on the floodplain. Flows with various groyne lengths and total discharges were investigated. Effects on the hydraulic parameters of the superimposition of the two problems that are (i) flow in compound geometry and (ii) rapidly varied flow in the vicinity of a thin obstacle were analysed. Finally, dominance of physical processes in such flow configuration is discussed

Det här examensarbetet skildrar en konceptstudie och kostnadsuppskattning av enuniversell testrigg för växellådor. Arbetet har genomförts på uppdrag av SwepartTransmission AB och har resulterat i koncept- och komponentförslag samtkostnadsuppskattning av ett universellt test system av växellådor. / This degree project cover a concept study and cost analyses of a universal test rig forgears. The project has been performed for Swepart Transmission AB and has resultedin a concept and component suggestion as well as cost analysis of a universal testsystem for gears.

Bioenergy is one of many contributors to reducing the use of fossil fuels in order to mitigate climate change by decreasing CO2-emissions, and the potential for biofuels are large. The wood fuel pellets are a refined biofuel made of sawdust, which is dried and compressed to achieve improved fuel and transportation properties. In 2007 the amount of wood fuel pellets used for heating purposes in Sweden was 1715000 tons. The aims of this work was: to examine the moisture content and emission of monoterpenes during the drying and pelletising steps of the pellets production (Paper I); to investigate how the recirculation of drying gases affects the energy efficiency of rotary dryers and how the energy efficiency is related to the capacity of the dryer. (Paper II); to analyse the causes of the problems encountered by household end-users of pellets and investigate whether an improved pellet quality standard could reduce these problems (Paper III); to investigate how the energy consumption of the pelletising machine and chosen pellet quality parameters were affected using an increased amount of rapeseed cake in wood fuel pellets (Paper IV); and to identify gaps of knowledge about wood fuel pellet technology and needs for further research on quality, environmental and health aspects throughout the wood fuel pellet chain, from sawdust to heat. (Paper V).

Les études sur le Vortex Ring State ont récemment reçu un regain d'intérêt suite à la mise en place de trajectoires d'approche à forte pente pour les atterrissages en ville qui conduisent à des conditions de vol proches des frontières du VRS. Dans les années antérieures, les aspects numériques ont été étudiés grâce à des méthodes empiriques ou des modèles analytiques, et des expériences ont été effectuées dans le but de mieux comprendre la physique du phénomène. Dans cette étude, le code CFD elsA a été utilisé dans le but de résoudre les équations d'Euler. Un balayage en vitesse de descente verticale avec différents maillages a été réalisé afin d'étudier la capacité du solveur à capturer le Vortex Ring State. Dans un premier temps, la précision de la représentation de l'écoulement a été évalué en fonction d'hypothèses numériques (stratégies et précision des maillages, consistance en temps des simulations, ...) et physiques (périodicité de l'écoulement, cinématique du rotor, ...). Ceci permet d'extraire les options pour effectuer, dans un second temps, des simulations les plus représentatives possible de l'état de VRS afin d'étudier et de pouvoir décrire les mécanismes d'apparition et d'évolution de ce phénomène.

Master of Science / Department of Grain Science and Industry / Dirk E. Maier / Fumigation of stored grain is a common way to kill stored-grain insect pests. However, fumigating in unsealed structures is the leading cause of control failures and subsequent development of insect resistance. Sealing the storage structure is the only practical way to ensure a complete kill of all insects at all life stages. The cost, effort, and feasibility of sealing a U.S. corrugated steel silo during construction was evaluated and compared against an Australian sealed silo designed for fumigation. Gas monitoring and thermosiphon recirculation equipment was installed on both silos. Fumigation efficacy was evaluated using pressure half-life decay times, fumigant concentrations, insect bioassays, and grain quality data. Three fumigations with phosphine (PH₃) pellets or tablets and two with VAPORPH₃OS® cylinderized PH₃ and ProFume® cylinderized sulfuryl fluoride (SF) were performed in each silo for a total of ten experimental treatments. The Australian silo required 266 man-hours to construct and cost $180 for additional sealing, compared to 359 man-hours and $3,284 for constructing and sealing the U.S. silo. The Australian silo had a maximum pressure half-life decay time of 163 s versus 50 s for the U.S. silo. At application rates of 1.5 g/mᶟ of PH₃ both silos maintained an average concentration of approximately 0.28 g/mᶟ for 14 days. With thermosiphon recirculation the average minimum-to-maximum PH₃ concentration ratio in the U.S. silo was 0.52, compared to a ratio of 0.17 when fumigating without thermosiphon recirculation. Greater than 99% adult mortality was observed in all insect bioassays which included PH₃ resistant strains of R. dominica and T. castaneum. The average emergence from fumigated bioassays was 7 adult insects, compared to an average of 383 adults for the non-fumigated controls. Grain stored for 10 months in the sealed silos increased from approximately 11.5% to 17% m.c. in the top 0.3 m of grain, and decreased in test weight from approximately 77 to 65 kg/hL. Although the Australian silo retained higher fumigant concentrations than the U.S. silo, fumigations were successful in both. Long-term storage in sealed silos is a concern because grain quality can deteriorate due to condensation and mold in the top grain layer.