Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2014. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Ischaemic heart disease is a major contributor to global morbidity and mortality rates. Manoeuvres such as ischaemic preconditioning confer cardioprotection against ischaemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury by activating several intracellular signalling pathways. These pathways have been defined solely in terms of the kinases involved, despite the realization in recent years that protein phosphatase activity also contributes significantly to the attributes of the propagated signal. Protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) is a heteromultimeric enzyme involved in an array of phosphatase reactions. We hypothesized that PP2A is an important participant in the myocardial response to I/R by regulating intracellular signalling. This project aimed to (i) characterize PP2A during myocardial I/R; (ii) determine the importance of its contribution to the cellular response to I/R; and (iii) investigate its role in the signalling pathways mediated by PKB/Akt, GSK-3β, ERK p42/p44 and p38 MAPK. Two models were used to characterize PP2A during I/R: (i) H9c2 cells exposed to simulated ischaemia (SI) buffer in conjunction with hypoxia (0.5% O2) for a maximum of 2 hours, followed by reoxygenation in standard growth medium for up to 30 minutes; and (ii) isolated working rat hearts exposed to a maximum of 20 minutes global ischaemia and 10 minutes reperfusion. In both models samples were collected at several time points during I/R for Western blotting analysis. PP2A-C (the catalytic subunit) accumulated in the nucleus during early ischaemia, but later redistributed to the cytosol. At the end of ischaemia there was an elevation of PP2A-C relative to PP2A-A in the unfractionated whole cell preparation concomitant with an increase in the inhibitory phosphorylation of PP2A-C. The impact of PP2A activity was evaluated by either inhibiting PP2A using okadaic acid (OA, 10 nM) or activating it by administering FTY720 (1 μM) in an isolated working rat heart model exposed to either 35 minutes of regional ischaemia (RI) with infarct size (IFS) as primary end-point, or 20 minutes global ischaemia (GI) with functional recovery as end-point. The results showed that the pre-ischaemic administration of OA or FTY720 reduced or exacerbated IFS respectively, indicating that PP2A activation during I/R favours cell death. OA and FTY720 were also employed to assess the contribution of PP2A to intracellular signalling in an isolated working rat heart exposed to I/R. Samples were collected at several timepoints and analyzed using Western Blotting. Pre-ischaemic administration of OA enhanced the phosphorylation of PKB/Akt, ERK p42/p44 and GSK-3β at the onset of reperfusion, while FTY720 given before ischaemia reduced the phosphorylation of GSK-3β, p38 MAPK and PKB/Akt at the end of ischaemia and onset of reperfusion. In summary, PP2A is part of an early nuclear-based response to ischaemia, while long-term ischaemia induces an increase in PP2A-C. A portion of this PP2A-C is stored in an inactive form, while an active portion acts as a regulator of the pro-survival signalling components PKB/Akt, GSK- 3β and ERK p42/p44 at the end of ischaemia and the onset of reperfusion. PP2A is therefore an important component of the myocardial response to I/R by regulating pro-survival signalling. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Iskemiese hartsiekte is een van die belangrikste komponente wat bydra tot globale morbiditeit en mortaliteit. Ingrepe soos iskemiese prekondisionering aktiveer veelvoudige intrasellulêre seintransduksiepaaie om kardiobeskerming teen iskemie/herperfusie (I/H)-besering te ontlok. Die kinases betrokke in hierdie seintransduksiepaaie is reeds deeglik nagevors, terwyl die potensiële belang van die proteïenfosfatases in seintransduksie tot onlangs misken is. Ons hipotese was dat Proteïenfosfatase 2A (PP2A), wat in ‘n wye verskeidenheid fosfatase reaksies betrokke is, ‘n belangrike rolspeler in die miokardiale reaksie op I/H-besering is, deur deelname aan die regulering van intrasellulêre seintransduksie. Hierdie projek het ten doel gehad om (i) PP2A te karakteriseer tydens miokardiale I/H; (ii) die belang van PP2A in die sellulêre reaksie op I/H-besering te bepaal; en (iii) PP2A se rol in die seintransduksiepaaie, gemedieer deur PKB/Akt, GSK-3β, ERK p42/p44 en p38 MAPK, te evalueer. Twee modelle is aangewend om PP2A tydens I/H te karakteriseer: (i) H9c2-selle blootgestel aan ‘n simuleerde iskemiebuffer tesame met hipoksie (0.5% O2) vir ‘n maksimum van 2 uur gevolg deur heroksiginasie in standaardgroeimedium vir verskillende tydsperiodes tot ‘n maksimum van 30 minute; en (ii) geïsoleerde, werkende rotharte blootgestel aan ‘n maksimum van 20 minute globale iskemie en 10 minute herperfusie. In beide modelle is monsters op verskillende tye versamel vir Western-kladanalise. Tydens vroeë iskemie het PP2A-C in die kern toegeneem, waarna dit met verloop van tyd na die sitosol herversprei het. Teen die einde van iskemie was daar ‘n toename in die vlakke van PP2A-C relatief tot PP2A-A in ongefraksioneerde weefselhomogenate, tesame met ‘n toename in die inhibitoriese fosforilering van PP2A-C. Die belang van PP2A-aktiwiteit is ondersoek deur die effek te bepaal van die inhibisie of aktivering daarvan op infarktgrootte (IFS) en funksionele herstel in ‘n geïsoleerde werkende rothartmodel, blootgestel aan onderskeidelik 35 minute streeksiskemie (RI) of 20 minute globale iskemie. Preiskemiese toediening van die PP2A-inhibitor okadaïensuur (OA, 10 nM), of aktiveerder FTY720 (1 μm) het infarktgrootte respektiewelik beperk of vergroot. PP2A-aktivering tydens I/H is dus nadelig. OA en FTY720 is ook aangewend om die bydrae van PP2A tot I/H-verwante, intrasellulêre seintransduksie in die geïsoleerde, werkende rothart te bepaal. Monsters is op verskeie tydintervalle versamel en ontleed deur gebruik te maak van die Western-kladtegniek. Preiskemiese toediening van OA het die fosforilering van PKB/Akt, ERK p42/p44 en GSK-3β by die aanvang van herperfusie bevoordeel, terwyl pre-iskemiese toediening van FTY720, die fosforilering van GSK-3β, p38 MAPK en PKB/Akt aan die einde van iskemie en die begin van herperfusie verminder het. Ter opsomming: PP2A is deel van ‘n vroeë gelokaliseerde kerngebaseerde reaksie op iskemie, terwyl langdurige iskemie ‘n toename in PP2A-C relatief tot PP2A-A induseer. ‘n Deel van hierdie PP2A-C is onaktief, terwyl die res funksioneer in die regulering van die seintransduksiekomponente PKB/Akt, GSK-3β en ERK p42/p44 wat oorlewing fasiliteer met die aanvang van herperfusie. PP2A is dus ‘n belangrike komponent in die miokardiale reaksie op I/H deurdat dit tot die beheer van seintransduksiepaaie bydra.

Woo Yiu Ho Anthony. / "August 2004." / Thesis (Ph.D.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2004. / Includes bibliographical references (p. 176-198). / Electronic reproduction. Hong Kong : Chinese University of Hong Kong, [2012] System requirements: Adobe Acrobat Reader. Available via World Wide Web. / Mode of access: World Wide Web. / Abstracts in English and Chinese.

Thesis (MSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2002. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The ultimate consequence of the interruption of blood flow to the myocardium is necrosis. In view of the prevalence of coronary artery disease in the general population, and the deleterious effects of myocardial ischaemia on myocardial tissue, it is important to develop new strategies to protect the myocardium against ischaemia. Necrosis of myocardial tissue has for a long time been considered to be the main component of the damage incurred by myocardial infarction. Recently the importance of the contribution of apoptotic cell death in the context of myocardial ischaemia/reperfusion injury has become apparent. There is a general agreement that early reperfusion is necessary to salvage myocardial tissue from cell death. Preconditioning is the phenomenon whereby brief episodes of ischaemia and reperfusion protect the heart against a subsequent longer period of ischaemia. This endogenous mechanism is the strongest form of protection against myocardial infarction that has yet been described. Apart from ischaemie preconditioning (IPC), protection can also be elicited with pharmacologic agents, such as activation of the beta-adrenergic receptor with isoproterenol. Ischaemie preconditioning protects the myocardium against necrosis, arrhythmias and apoptosis, and increases functional recovery upon reperfusion. Betaadrenergic receptor stimulated preconditioning (PPC) has been shown to improve post-ischaemie functional recovery, but it is not known whether it also protects against myocardial infarction and apoptosis. The signaling pathways involved in preconditioning have been extensively studied. A distinction is usually made between factors that act as triggers, or as mediators of protection. Triggers activate cellular responses before the onset of sustained ischaemia, and its involvement is demonstrated by showing that inhibitors of the trigger bracketing the preconditioning protocol can block its protective effect, or that transient administration with washout before sustained ischaemia can activate a protective effect. A mediator operates during sustained ischaemia, and its involvement is demonstrated by showing that infusion of an inhibitor of its action immediately prior to sustained ischaemia (without washout) can block its protective effect. Another approach to demonstrate a mediator role is to attempt to activate signal transduction pathways during sustained ischaemia. As it is not possible to infuse substances during ischaemia, activators are infused immediately prior to ischaemia without washout of the agent and subsequently its effect on protection is observed. It is clear that the evolutionary conserved stress activated pathways are involved in preconditioning. There are three pathways i.e., the extracellular receptor activated pathways (ERK), c-jun terminal activated kinases (JNK) and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK). The precise role of the p38 MAPK pathway has not been elucidated. Experimental evidence has suggested a role for the activation of p38 MAPK as a trigger, as well as a mediator of the protective effect of preconditioning. There is however also strong evidence that the attenuation of p38 MAPK activation during sustained ischaemia, rather than its activation, is responsible for the protection that is observed. Furthermore, the role of p38 MAPK has only been investigated in relation to its protection against necrosis, but not apoptosis. AIMS: The aim of this study was to: (I) Establish a model of preconditioning in neonatal cardiomyocyte cell culture. The reason was that such a model could potentially enable one to rapidly elucidate the signal transduction pathways in an environment without the influence of non-cardiac cells. (II) Investigate whether IPC and ~PC protect against necrosis and apoptosis. (III) Elucidate the role of the stress-activated kinase, p38 MAPK, in preconditioning. METHODS: 1. Neonatal rat cardiomyocyte cell culture model A viability assay with 3-[4,5- Dimethylthaizol-2-yl]-2,5-diphenyl-tetrazolium bromide (MTT) was first developed using different concentrations - a concentration of 0.25% was found to be optimal to determine viability. Neonatal cardiomyocyte cell cultures were subjected to sustained simulated "ischaemia" by using either 5 mM KCN plus deoxyglucose (DOG) for 5 min or potassium cyanide (KCN) for 45 min. Some cell cultures were preconditioned with either chemical ischaemia (5 mM KCN for 5 min) or isoproterenol (10-7 M) for 5 min and 60 min reoxygenation before being exposed to sustained simulated ischaemia. 2. Isolated adult rat cardiomyocyte model Isolated cardiac myocytes were exposed to 2 hours of hypoxia, which was induced by pelletting the cells by centrifugation, and covering them with a thin layer of mineral oil. Some groups were preconditioned with either hypoxia for 10 min at 37° C or isoproterenol (10-7 M) for 5 min, followed by reoxygenation for 20 minutes. The trypan blue exclusion method and MTT method developed in the neonatal cardiomyocytes were used to assess viability. 3. Isolated perfused rat heart model 3.1 Infarct size was determined in a model of regional ischaemia by using tetrazolium staining and determining the area of necrosis (exclusion of tetrazolium) as a percentage of area at risk. These hearts were subjected to 35 min global ischaemia and 30 min reperfusion. Some groups were preconditioned by three cycles of 5 min global ischaemia or addition of isoproterenol (10-7 M) for 5 min, followed by 5 min reperfusion before the onset of sustained regional ischaemia. 3.2 p38 MAPK activation and markers of apoptosis: p38 MAPK activation was determined using antibodies against dual phosphorylated p38 MAPK (i.e. activated p38 MAPK). Apoptosis was measured by using antibodies against activated caspase-3, and against a fragment of PARP (PARP cleavage). For these experiments isolated rat hearts were exposed to global ischaemia for 25 min followed by 30 min reperfusion. Some groups were preconditioned with three cycles of 5 min global ischaemia. A global ischaemia model was used in order to have sufficient tissue available for the Western blot determinations. This necessitated a shorter period of sustained ischaemia, as the globally ischaemie heart does not recover sufficiently after a longer period of ischaemia such as is necessary in regional ischaemia experiments. 3.3 The role of p38 MAPK in ischaemie preconditioning was investigated by administration of SB 203580 (1IJM),a selective inhibitor of p38 MAPK, either bracketing the preconditioning (i.e. to determine its role as a trigger) or for 10 min immediately prior to sustained ischaemia (i.e. to determine its role as a mediator). The second approach was to use anisomycin, an activator of p38 MAPK, as a trigger (infusion for 10 min followed by wash out) or as a mediator (10 min immediately prior to sustained ischaemia) in the same model as used for determination of p38 MAPK activity. The infusion of anisomycin for 10 min has been shown to elicit activation of p38 MAPK to a similar extent as has been observed with an ischaemie preconditioning protocol. The endpoints used were infarct size and markers of apoptosis. RESULTS: 1. Neonatal rat cardiomyocyte cell culture model It was not possible to establish a model of preconditioning of neonatal cardiomyocytes that was consistently successful. It was therefore decided to abandon the attempts and to use a different cell model. 2. Isolated adult rat cardiomyocyte model Isolated adult cardiomyocytes were preconditioned successfully, but produced too little material to perform simultaneous determinations of cell viability and Western blots (p38 MAPK activation and markers of apoptosis). It was therefore decided to use the isolated perfused adult rat heart. 3. Isolated perfused adult rat heart model 3.1 Both IPC and PPCprotect against infarction and apoptosis: Using two models of preconditioning i.e., IPC and PPC, the protective effects of preconditioning were demonstrated convincingly against infarction (necrosis). IPC and PPC both caused a significant reduction in infarct size (12.2±1.4 and 15.2±2.6%) versus Non-PC hearts (29.6±2.9%) (p < 0.001). Both forms of preconditioning also protected against apoptosis, by significantly reducing the markers of apoptosis, caspase-3 activation and PARP cleavage. The protection afforded by both forms of preconditioning was accompanied by a marked decrease in activation of p38 MAPK upon reperfusion. The relationship between p38 MAPK and the protection that was elicited by preconditioning was then investigated, namely whether p38 MAPK acted as a trigger, or as a mediator of protection. To investigate the role of p38 MAPK as a mediator or a trigger in preconditioning, use was made of (i) a specific inhibitor of p38 MAPK activation i.e., SB 203580 and (ii) a known activator of p38 MAPK i.e., anisomycin. 3.2 p38 MAPK as a trigger of protection: Administration of SB 203580 during the IPC protocol and washed out before sustained ischaemia did not abolish the protective effect of ischaemie preconditioning, and resulted in a small, but significant increase in caspase-3 activation and PARP cleavage. On the other hand, activation of p38 MAPK with anisomycin for 10 min followed by washout also resulted in a significant reduction in necrosis (infarct size 14.9±2.2 versus 29.6±2.9% in Non-PC hearts) (p < 0.001) and both markers of apoptosis. The latter results suggested that p38 MAPK was a trigger of preconditioning. If this was the case, why didn't SB 203580 abolish the protection of IPC? The most likely explanation was that multiple protective mechanisms were activated during a multi-cycle protocol of ischaemic preconditioning, of which activation of p38 MAPK was only one. Inhibition of p38 MAPK with SB 203580 would therefore not be expected to block the activation of those mechanisms that were independent of p38 MAPK, but were still capable of protecting against necrosis or apoptosis. It is very interesting that a small increase in apoptosis was observed when SB 203580 was used in this situation, as it may indicate that the protection against apoptosis was more dependent on the activation of p38 MAPK than the protection against necrosis, as no effect was seen on infarct size. Another explanation could be that infarct size determination was not sensitive enough to detect such small effects. 3.3 p38 MAPK as a mediator of protection: Inhibition of p38 MAPK activation with SB 203580 administered 10 min before sustained ischaemia caused a significant decrease in infarct size compared to Non-PC hearts (12.6±1.9 vs 29.6±2.9%) (p < 0.001) equivalent to that of hearts preconditioned with ischaemia. This was accompanied by a similar pattern of protection against apoptosis, with significantly reduced activation of caspase-3 activation and PARP cleavage. These results strongly supported a role for the attenuation of p38 MAPK activation as a mediator of preconditioning against ischaemia/reperfusion-mediated necrosis and apoptosis. However, the results of the experiments with anisomycin were at first glance not compatible with such a conclusion. The administration of the activator of p38 MAPK, anisomycin, for 10 min immediately prior to sustained ischaemia resulted in significant protection against necrosis (infarct size 16.6±2.4% vs 29.6±2.9% in Non-PC hearts) (p < 0.01) and reduced caspase-3 activation and PARP cleavage indicating less apoptosis. The reason for these findings were probably that this method of administration of anisomycin did in fact not activate p38 MAPK during sustained ischaemia, but actually served as a trigger to protect against ischaemia - similarly as if it had been infused with washout of the drug. Support for this notion was found in the fact that p38 MAPK activation was decreased upon reperfusion. These results suggested that the logistical problem of not being able to infuse a drug into the myocardium during ischaemia could not be overcome by immediate prior infusion, and that the administration of anisomycin in this way had activated downstream effectors of the p38 MAPK signal transduction pathway. An important contender for such an effector would be heat shock protein 27 (HSP27), which has been shown to play an important role in protection against apoptosis, and stabilisation of actin, and thus the cytoskeleton. Another possibility was that anisomycin had activated the JNK stress activated kinases. The elucidation of a role of this signal transduction pathway would necessitate the use of anisomycin in the presence of an agent such as curcumin, an inhibitor of JNK. Final conclusion: The work in this thesis showed that the stress activated kinase, p38 MAPK, was involved in the protective effect of ischaemie preconditioning. The results suggested a role for the activation of p38 MAPK as a trigger of protection, and the attenuation of p38 MAPK as a mediator of protection, which was observed in the reduction of both necrosis (infarct size) and apoptosis as determined with caspase- 3 activation and PARP cleavage. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die afsluiting van bloedvloei na die miokardium gee aanleiding tot nekrose. In die lig van die voorkoms van koronêre bloedvatsiekte onder die algemene populasie, en die nadelige effekte van miokardiale isgemie op miokardiale weefsel, is dit belangrik om nuwe strategieë te ontwikkel wat die miokardium teen isgemie beskerm. Nekrose van miokardiale weefsel word tradisioneel as die belangrikste komponent van die skade aangerig deur miokardiale infarksie beskou. Die belang van apoptotiese seldood in die konteks van miokardiale isgemie/herperfusie (I/R) het onlangs na vore getree. Dit word algeneem aanvaar dat vroeë vroegtydige herperfusie noodsaaklik is om miokardiale weefsel te beskerm teen seldood. Prekondisionering is 'n verskynsel waartydens kort episodes van IIR die hart teen 'n daaropvolgende langer periode van isgemie beskerm. Hierdie endogene meganisme is die kragtigste vorm van beskerming teen miokardiale infarksie tot dusver beskryf. Afgesien van isgemiese prekondisionering (IPC), kan beskerming ook deur farmakologiese middels, soos byvoorbeeld die aktivering van die beta-adrenerge reseptore met isoproterenol, ontlok word. IPC beskerm die miokardium teen nekrose, arritmieë en apoptose, en verhoog funksionele herstel na herperfusie. Daar is reeds aangetoon dat betaadrenerge prekonsionering (~PC) post-isgemiese funksionele herstel verbeter, maar dit is nog onbekend of beskerming ook teen miokardiale infarksie en apoptose verleen word. Die seintransduksie paaie betrokke tydens prekondisionering is reeds in detail bestudeer. Daar word gewoonlik tussen faktore wat optree as snellers, of as mediators van beskerming, onderskei. Snellers aktiveer sellulêre response voor die aanvang van volgehoue isgemie, en hul betrokkenheid word aangetoon deurdat inhibisie van snellers tydens die prekondisionering protokol, beskerming ophef. Snellers se effekete kan ook ontlok word deur hulle tydelike toe te dien en dan net voor volgehoue isgemie weer uit te was. Mediators oefen hulle effek tydens volgehoue isgemie uit, en hulle betrokkenheid word gedemonstreer deurdat toediening van inhibitors net voor volgehoue isgemie (sonder uitwas) hulle beskermende effekte ophef. Mediators se rol kan ook aangetoon word deur te poog om seintransduksie paaie tydens volgehoue isgemie te aktiveer. Aangesien dit ontmoontlik is om middels tydens isgemie te infuseer, word aktiveerders onmiddelik voor die aanvang van isgemie toegedien sonder om hulle uit te was, sodat hulle effekte op beskerming vervolgens bestudeer kan word. Dit is duidelik dat die evolusionêr-behoue stres geaktiveerde paaie tydens prekondisionering betrokke is. Daar is drie paaie nl. die ekstrasellulêre reseptor geaktiveerde pad (ERK), c-jun terminaal geaktiveerde kinases (JNK) en p38 mitogeen geaktiveerde proteïen kinases (MAPK). Die spesifieke rol van die p38 MAPK pad is nog nie ontrafel nie. Eksperimentele bewyse stel 'n rol vir die aktivering van p38 MAPK as 'n sneller, sowel as 'n mediator van die beskermende effek van prekondisionering, voor. Daar is egter ook sterk bewyse dat 'n afname in p38 MAPK aktivering tydens volgehoue isgemie, eerder as sy aktivering, verantwoordelik is vir die waargenome beskermende effek. Verder is die rol van p38 MAPK slegs in die konteks van beskerming teen nekrose, maar nie teen apoptose nie, bestudeer. DOELWITTE: Die doelwit van hierdie studie was: (I) Die vestiging van 'n prekondisionering model in neonatale kardiomiosiet in selkultuur. Hierdie model sou potensieel 'n spoedige ontrafeling van die seintransduksie paaie sonder die invloed van nie-kardiale selle bewerkstellig. (II Om ondersoek in te stelof IPC en PPCteen nekrose en apoptose beskerm. (III) Die ontrafeling van die rol van die stres geaktiveerde kinase, p38 MAPK, tydens prekondisionering. METODES: 1. Neonatale rot kardiomiosiet weefselkultuur model 'n Lewensvatbaarheids essai is ontwikkel deur van verskillende konsentrasies van 3-[4,5-dimetielthiazol-2-yl]-2,5-difeniel-tetrazolium bromied (MTT) gebruik te maak - 'n konsentrasie van 0.25% was optimaalom lewensvatbaarheid te bepaal. Neonatale kardiomiosiet weefselkulture is onderwerp aan volgehoue gesimuleerde "isgemie" deur gebruik te maak van 5 mM KCN plus deoksiglukose (DOG) vir 5 minute of 45 min KCN. Sommige weefselkulture is geprekondisioneer deur middel van chemiese isgemie (5 mM KCN vir 5 min) of van isoproterenol (10-7 M) vir 5 minute en 60 minute reoksigenasie alvorens dit bloot gestel is aan volgehoue gesimuleerde isgemie. 2. Geïsoleerde volwasse rot kardiomiosiet model Geïsoleerde kardiomiosiete is aan twee uur hipoksie blootgestel deur selle in 'n pellet te sentrifugeer en met 'n dun lagie mineraalolie te bedek. Sommige groepe is geprekondisioneer deur middel van 10 minute hipoksie by 37°C, of toediening van isoproterenol (10-7 M) vir 5 minute gevolg deur 20 minute reoksigenasie. Die tripaanblou uitsluitings metode en MTT metode soos ontwikkel in die neonatale kardiomiosiet model is gebruik om lewensvatbaarheid te bepaal. 3. Geïsoleerde geperfuseerde volwasse rot hart model 3.1 Infarkgrootte is bepaal met 'n model van streeks isgemie deur van tetrazolium kleuring gebruik te maak, waarna die area van nekrose (uitsluiting van tetrazolium) as 'n presentasie van die risiko area bepaal is. Hierdie harte was onderwerp aan 35 minute globale isgemie en 30 minute herperfusie. Sommige groepe is geprekondisioneer met 3 siklusse van 5 minute globale isgemie, of die toevoeging van isoproterenol (10-7 M) vir 5 minute, gevolg deur 5 minute herperfusie voor die aanvang van volgehoue streeks isgemie. 3.2 p38 MAPK aktivering en merkers van apoptose: p38 MAPK aktivering is bepaal deur gebruik te maak van anti-liggame teen tweeledige gefosforileerde p38 MAPK (d.w.s. geaktiveerde p38 MAPK). Apoptose is bepaal deur gebruik te maak van anti-liggame teen geaktiveerde kaspase-3, en teen 'n fragment van PARP (PARP kliewing). Tydens hierdie eksperimente is geïsoleerde rotharte bloot gestel aan 25 minute globale isgemie gevolg deur 30 minute herperfusie. Sommige groepe is geprekondisioneer met drie siklusse van 5 minute globale isgemie. Om voldoende weefsel vir Westerse klad tegnieke te verkry, is gebruik gemaak van 'n globale isgemie model. As gevolg hiervan was 'n kort periode van volgehoue isgemie genoodsaak, aangesien die globale isgemiese hart nie voldoende herstel na 'n langer periode van isgemie nie, soos wat benodig word in streeks isgemiese eksperimente. 3.3 Die rol van p38 MAPK tydens IPC is bepaal deur die toediening van 'n 1IJM konsentrasie van SB 203580, 'n selektiewe inhibitor van p38 MAPK, hetsy tydens prekondisionering (d.w.s. om die rol as 'n sneller te bepaal), óf vir 10 minute direk voor die aanvang van volgehoue isgemie (d.w.s. om dus sy rol as mediator te bepaal). Die tweede benadering was om anisomisien, 'n aktiveerder van p38 MAPK, as sneller (toediening vir 10 minute gevolg deur uitwassing) of as mediator (10 minute direk voor aanvang van volgehoue isgemie) in dieselfde model as in die geval van p38 MAPK aktiviteit bepaling, te gebuik. Die toediening van anisomisien vir 10 minute het aangetoon dat dit p38 MAPK aktivering kan ontlok tot dieselfde maate as die IPC protokol. Die eindpunte was infarkgrootte en merkers van apoptose. RESULTATE: 1. Neonatale rot kardiomiosiet weefselkultuur model Dit was nie moontlik om 'n suksesvolle model met konsekwente resultate vir die prekondisionering van neonatale kardiomiosiete te vestig nie. Daar is dus besluit om af te sien van hierdie pogings en eerder 'n alternatiewe selmodel te gebruik. 2. Geïsoleerde volwasse rot kardiomiosiet model Geïsoleerde volwasse kardiomiosiete is suksesvol geprekondisioneer, maar het te min materiaalopgelewer vir die gelyktydige bepaling van sellewensvatbaarheid, p38 MAPK aktivering en merkers vir apoptose. Daar is dus besluit om die geïsoleerde geperfuseerde volwasse rothart te gebruik. 3. Geïsoleerde geperfuseerde volwasse rothart model 3.1 Beide IPC en PPCbeskerm teen infarksie en apoptose: Deur gebruik te maak van twee prekondisionering modelle d.w.s. IPC en PPC, is die beskermende effekte van prekondisionering teen infraksie (nekrose) oortuigend gedemonstreer. Beide IPC en PPC het In betekenisvolle afname in infarkgrootle veroorsaak (12.2 ± 1.4 en 15.2 ± 2.6% respektiewelik), vs Nie-PC harte (29.6 ± 2.9%)(p < 0.001). Beide vorme van prekondisionering het ook teen apoptose beskerm deur die apoptose merkers, kaspase-3 aktivering en PARP kliewing te verlaag. Die beskerming verkry deur beide vorms van prekondisionering is geassosieer met In merkbare afname in die aktivering van p38 MAPK na herperfusie. Die verband tussen p38 MAPK en die beskerming ontlok deur prekondisionering is gevolglik ondersoek, naamlik of p38 MAPK optree as 'n sneller of as 'n mediator van beskerming. Om die rol van p38 MAPK as 'n mediator of sneller tydens prekondisionering te ondersoek is daar gebruik gemaak van (I) 'n spesifieke inhibitor van p38 MAPK aktivering nl. SB 203580 en (II) 'n bekende aktiveerder van p38 MAPK nl. anisomisien. 3.2 p38 MAPK as 'n sneller vir beskerming: Toediening van SB 203580 tydens die IPC protokol en uitwassing daarvan voor die aanvang van volgehoue isgemie het nie die beskermende effek van IPC opgehef nie, en het gelei tot 'n klein maar betekenisvolle verhoging in kaspase-3 aktivering en PARP kliewing. Andersins het die aktivering van p38 MAPK met anisomisien vir 10 minute gevolg deur In uitwas ook tot In betekenisvolle afname in nekrose (infarkgrootte 14.9 ± 2.2 vs 29.6 ± 2.9% in Nie-PC harte) (p < 0.001) in beide merkers van apoptose gelei. Laasgenoemde resultate dui daarop dat p38 MAPK inderdaad 'n mediator van prekondisionering is. Indien dit die geval is, waarom het SB 203580 nie die beskermende effek van IPC opgehef nie? Die mees waarskynlike verklaring is dat veelvuldige beskermingsmeganismes tydens 'n multi-siklus protokol van IPC geaktiveer word, waarvan p38 MAPK aktivering slegs een is. Dit is dus onwaarskynlik dat die inhibisie van p38 MAPK met SB 203580 die aktivering van daardie meganismes onafhanklik van p38 MAPK sal blokkeer en steeds in staat sal wees tot beskerming teen nekrose en apoptose. Dit is interessant dat In klein verhoging in apoptose waargeneem is toe SB 203580 gebruik is onder hierdie toestande, aangesien dit daarop kan dui dat die beskerming teen apoptose meer afhanklik was van die aktivering van p38 MAPK as die beskerming teen nekrose, siende dat geen effek op infarkgrootte waargeneem is nie. 'n Verdere verklaring kan wees dat die bepaling van infarkgrootte nie sensitief genoeg is om sulke klein effekte waar te neem nie. 3.3 p38 MAPK as 'n mediator vir beskerming: Inhibisie van p38 MAPK aktivering deur SB 203580 toediening 10 minute voor volgehoue isgemie het 'n betekenisvolle verlaging in infarkgrootte in vergelyking met Nie-PC harte veroorsaak (12.6 ± 1.9 vs 29.6 ± 2.9%) (p < 0.001) soortgelyk aan dié van harte geprekondisioneer met isgemie. Dit is geassosieer met In soortgelyke patroon van beskerming teen apoptose, met betekenisvolle verlaagde kaspase-3 aktivering en PARP kliewing. Hierdie resultate ondersteun die rol van die afname van p38 MAPK aktivering as 'n mediator van prekondisionering teen I/R-gemedieerde nekrose en apoptose. Die resultate van die anisomisien eksperimente was met die eerste oogopslag nie in oorstemming met hierdie gevolgtrekking nie. Die toedienning van die p38 MAPK aktiveerder, anisomisien, vir 10 minute voor volgehoue isgemie het tot 'n betekenisvolle beskerming teen nekrose aanleiding gegee (infarkgrootte 16.6 ± 2.4 vs 29.6 ± 2.9% in Nie-PC harte) (p < 0.01) en verlaagde kaspase-3 aktivering en PARP kliewing wat dui op verlaagde apoptose. Die rede vir hierdie bevindings is moontlik dat die metode van anisomisien toediening nie p38 MAPK geaktiveer het tydens volgehoue isgemie nie, maar eintlik gedien het as 'n sneller vir beskerming teen isgemie - amper asof dit toegedien sou word sonder om uitgewas te word. Ondersteuning vir hierdie aanname word gevind in die feit dat p38 MAPK aktivering verlaag is na herperfusie. Hierdie resultate stel voor dat die logistiese probleem dat In middel nie tydens isgemie toegedien kan word nie, nie oorkom kan word deur onmiddelike voortydige infusie nie, en dat die toediening van anisomisien op hierdie manier gelei het tot die aktivering van stroom-af effektors van die p38 MAPK seintransduksie pad. 'n Belangrike kandidaat vir so 'n effektor is "heat shock protein 27" (HSP27), wat reeds aangetoon is om 'n belangrike rol in die beskerming teen apoptose en destabilisering, en dus die sitoskelet, te speel. 'n Ander moontlikheid is dat anisomisien die JNK stres geaktiveerde kinases geaktiveer het. Die ontrafeling van die rol van hierdie seintransduksie pad noodsaak die gebruik van anisomisien in die teenwoordigheid van 'n agent soos curcumin, 'n JNK inhibitor. Finale gevolgtrekking: Die werk soos vervat in hierdie tesis toon aan dat die stres geaktiveerde kinase, p38 MAPK, betrokke is in die beskermings effek van isgemiese prekondisionering. Die resultate dui op 'n rol vir die aktivering van p38 MAPK as 'n sneller vir beskerming, en die afname in p38 MAPK as 'n mediator vir beskerming, soos waargeneem in die vermindering van veranderlikes van beide nekrose (infarkgrootte) en apoptose soos bepaal deur kaspase-3 aktivering en PARP kliewing.

Thesis (MScMedSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2015. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Obesity has reached epidemic proportions worldwide and is currently a serious health problem. It is associated with metabolic abnormalities, oxidative stress, hypertension, insulin resistance and an increased disposition for the development of cardiovascular disease. Elucidation of the pathophysiological mechanisms underlying obesity and its relationship with metabolic and cardiovascular diseases is essential for prevention and management of these disorders. Melatonin, the pineal gland hormone, is a powerful antioxidant and has been shown to protect the myocardium against ischaemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury. Long- as well as shortterm melatonin treatment also reversed several of the harmful effects of obesity in an animal model of hyperphagia-induced obesity (DIO). However, its effects on myocardial I/R injury and intracellular signalling in obesity induced by a high fat diet (HFD) are still unknown. Aims of study: (i) To evaluate the ability of a high fat diet (HFD) to induce obesity in rats. Apart from evaluating its effects on the biometric parameters and resistance to ischaemia/reperfusion injury (as indicated by infarct size in regional ischaemia and functional recovery after global ischaemia), special attention will be given on the interplay between adiponectin, AMPK, leptin, and FFA in this model. (ii) To evaluate the effect of daily oral administration of melatonin to rats on the HFD as well as their littermate controls, on the parameters listed above as well as on the development of obesity. In this study melatonin will be administered from the onset of the feeding of the high fat diet. Methods: Male Wistar rats were divided into 4 groups: (i) control rats (receiving normal rat chow) (C); (ii) control rats receiving melatonin (CM); (iii) obese rats (receiving HFD) (HFD); (iv) obese rats receiving melatonin (HM). Animals were kept on the diet for 16 weeks and melatonin treatment (10mg/kg/day, added to the drinking water) started at the onset of the feeding. Following feeding and treatment, the animals were grouped into fasted/ non-fasted of which biometric parameters were recorded and blood collected at the time of sacrifice for metabolic and biochemical assays. Hearts were perfused in the working mode for evaluation of myocardial function and infarct size determination after exposure to 35min regional ischaemia/60min reperfusion. For study of intracellular signaling, hearts were perfused in the working mode, subjected to 20min global ischaemia/10min reperfusion and freeze-clamped for Western blotting. Plasma leptin, adiponectin, free fatty acid, triglycerides, total cholesterol, phospholipids, conjugated dienes and thiobarbituric reactive substances (TBARS) levels were determined. Several kinases were investigated including, the RISK (reperfusion injury salvage kinase) (PKB/Akt and ERK p44/42) and SAFE (survivor activating factor enhancement) (STAT-3) pathways, AMPK and JNK under baseline conditions or following 10 min reperfusion. In addition, expression of UCP-3 and PGC1-α was determined. Results: Significant increases in body weight, visceral fat, blood glucose, insulin, HOMA index and leptin and a reduction in adiponectin levels were observed in the fasted high fat diet (HFD) group when compared with controls (C). Significant increases in free fatty acid and triglyceride levels were also noted the HFD group while other serum lipid parameters, including TBARS, remained unchanged. No differences in functional recovery during reperfusion or infarct size after exposure to 35 min regional ischaemia, as well as functional recovery during reperfusion after 20 min global ischaemia were observed between the control and HFD groups. Baseline and 10 min reperfusion data were similar for the RISK and SAFE pathway kinases for the control vs HFD groups. The HFD also had no effect on the expression and phosphorylation of myocardial AMPK and JNK, as well as on the expression of UCP-3 and PGC1-α, when compared to the controls. Treatment with melatonin significantly reduced body weight, visceral fat, blood glucose, HOMA index and serum leptin levels in HFD treated groups, while having no effect on the lipid profile. Although melatonin significantly reduced infarct size in both control [% of area at risk: 20.59 ± 2.29 (CM) vs 38.08 ± 2.77 (C)] and high-fat diet groups [% of area at risk: 11.43 ± 2.94 (HM) vs 38.06 ± 3.59 (H)], it was without effect on myocardial functional recovery during reperfusion. Melatonin had no effect on the intracellular signaling pathways studied. Conclusions: The HFD proved to be a useful model of diet-induced obesity with a more pronounced impact on biometric and metabolic changes compared to the DIO model. Long-term melatonin treatment successfully prevented the development of metabolic abnormalities associated with the high fat diet and obesity as well as significantly reduced myocardial infarct size. The mechanisms involved in melatonin-induced cardioprotection in obesity have not been fully elucidated in this study and require further investigation. However, the anti-obesogenic and cardioprotective properties of melatonin were very significant indeed and support the suggestion of this hormone as a potential tool in the treatment of obesity and associated cardiovascular complications. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Inleiding: Vetsug (obesiteit) het wêreldwyd epidemiese afmetings aangeneem en word tans as ‘n ‘n ernstige gesondheidsprobleem beskou. Vetsug word geassosieer met metaboliese afwykings, oksidatiewe stres, hipertensie, insulienweerstandigheid en is‘n belangrike risikofaktor vir die ontwikkeling van kardiovaskulêre siekte. Ten spyte hiervan, het onlangse studies ‘n gunstige effek van vetsug op die uitkomste van miokardiale infarksie in pasiënte gerapporteer, die sg obesiteitsparadoks. Kennis van die patofisiologiese meganismes onderliggend aan vetsug en die ontstaan van metaboliese afwykinge en hartsiekte is noodsaaklik vir die voorkoming en behandeling van hierdie toestande. Melatonien, die hormoon afgeskei deur die pineaalklier, is ‘n kragtige antioksidant en vry radikaal opruimer. Dit is voorheen aangetoon dat dit die hart teen iskemie/herperfusie (I/H) besering kan beskerm en sommige van die skadelike gevolge van vetsug in diermodelle kan omkeer. Die effek van melatonien op miokardiale I/H besering en intrasellulêre seintransduksie prosesse in vetsug geïduseer deur ‘n hoë vet dieet is egter nog onbekend. Doelstellings: (i) Die ontwikkeling en karakterisering van ‘n nuwe model van vetsug en insulienweerstandigheid geïnduseer deur 'n hoë vet dieet (HVD) en die evaluering van die effek daarvan op miokardiale I/H besering en die gepaardgaande intrasellulêre seintransduksieprosesse; (ii) Bepaling van die effek van daaglikse toediening van melatonien aan rotte op die HVD sowel as aan kontroles op ‘n standard dieet, op die ontwikkeling van dieet-geïnduseerde metaboliese veranderinge, miokardiale infarktgrootte en funksionele herstel na koronêre arterie afbinding, sowel as intrasellulêre seintransduksie. Metodiek: Vier groepe van manlike Wistar rotte is bestudeer: (i) kontrole rotte (op‘n standaard dieet) (K); (ii) kontrole rotte op ‘n standard dieet plus melatonien (KM); (iii) dieetrotte (op‘n HVD); (iv) HVD rotte wat melatonien ontvang (HM). Die HVD en melatonien (10mg/kg/dag in die drinkwater) is vir 16 weke toegedien. Na die periode van behandeling, is die diere in vastende en nie-vastende groepe verdeel, die biometriese parameters genoteer en bloedmonsters vir metaboliese en biochemiese bepalings versamel, tydens verwydering van die harte. Harte is geperfuseer volgens die werkhartmodel vir bepaling van miokardiale funksie en infarktgrootte na blootstelling aan 35min streeksiskemie. Vir evaluering van intrasellulêre seintransduksie, is geperfuseerde werkende rotharte blootgestel aan 15min globale iskemie/10 min herperfusie en gevriesklamp vir latere analises volgens die Western kladtegniek.hart. Serum leptien, adiponektien, vryvetsure, trigliseried, totale cholesterol, fosfolipiede, gekonjugeerde diene en tiobarbituursuur reaktiewe stowwe (TBARS) is bepaal. Met gebruik van Western kladtegniek, is die aktivering en/of uitdrukking van die RISK (PKB/ Akt en ERK p44/42) en SAFE (STAT-3) seintransduksiepaaie, AMPK, JNK, UCP-3 en PGC1-α, onder basislyn toestande of na 10 min herperfusie bestudeer. Resultate:‘n Beduidende toename in liggaamsgewig, visserale vet, die HOMA indeks, insulien en leptien vlakke is in die HVD groep waargeneem vergeleke met die kontrole (K) rotte. Adiponektien vlakke was laer in die HVD groep. Die HVD groep is ook gekenmerk deur ‘n beduidende styging in serum vryvetsuur en trigliseried vlakke, terwyl die ander lipied parameters, insluitende die TBARS vlakke, onveranderd was. Infarktgrootte en funksionele herstel tydens herperfusie na blootstelling aan 35 min streeksiskemie, asook funksionele herstel tydens herperfusie na 20 min globale iskemie het nie verskil tussen harte van die kontrole en HVD rotte nie. Aktivering van PKB/Akt, ERK p44/p42, STAT3, AMPK en JNK by basislyn en na 10 min herperfusie was soortgelyk in die kontrole en HFD groepe. Die HVD het ook geen effek op die uitdrukking van UCP-3 en PGC1-α in vergelyking met die kontrole gehad nie. Behandeling met melatonien het die liggaamsgewig, visserale vet, bloedglukose, HOMA indeks en serum leptien vlakke in die HVD groepe statisties beduidend verlaag, terwyl dit geen invloed op die lipiedprofiel gehad het nie. Melatonien behandeling het die miokardiale infarktgrootte beduidend en tot dieselfde mate verminder in beide kontrole [20.59 ± 2.29 (KM) vs 38.08 ± 2.77% (K)] en HVD groepe [11.43 ± 2.94 (HM) vs 38.06 ± 3.59% (HVD)]. Geen verskille is egter tussen die funksionele herstel gedurende herperfusie van die behandelde en onbehandelde kontrole en HVD groepe waargeneem nie. Melatonien het ook geen uitwerking op die intrasellulêre seintransduksiepaaie gehad nie. Gevolgtrekkings: Die resultate het getoon dat die HFD 'n goeie model van dieetgeïnduseerde vetsug en insulien weerstandigheid ontlok, met 'n meer uitgesproke impak op biometriese en metaboliese veranderinge as die voorheen gebruikte hoë-sukrose dieet. Langtermyn melatonien- behandeling het die ontwikkeling van metaboliese abnormaliteite geassosieer met die HVD, voorkom, asook miokardiale infarktgrootte na koronêre afbinding beduidend verminder. Die meganismes betrokke in melatonien-geïnduseerde miokardiale beskerming moet egter in meer detail ondersoek word. Die resultate verkry steun die voorstel dat melatonientoediening voordelig sal wees in die behandeling van vetsug en sy kardiovaskulêre komplikasies.

Thesis (MSc)--University of Stellenbosch, 2006. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Introduction: It is well documented that insulin offers cardioprotection against the consequences of ischaemia/reperfusion injury. Insulin-induced improvements in cardiac functions are widely investigated in models of ischaemia and reperfusion. It has been shown that many signalling pathways may be involved in the cardioprotection properties of insulin under those conditions. These pathways include PI3-K, PKB/Akt, p70S6k, ERK and many others. However, little data exists on the effects of insulin on the heart under normoxic condition. Some evidence has been presented that insulin has a positive inotropic effect on the normoxic perfused rat heart, but no precise cellular mechanism has been investigated or described in this regard. We believe that an investigation into the effects of insulin on cardiac function and pathways involved under normoxic conditions may help us to better understand the mechanisms of insulin-induced cardioprotection. Aims: To determine a suitable dose of insulin at which a positive inotropic response could be detectable under normoxic conditions, to investigate the possible mechanisms involved in insulin-induced increases in contractility with specific reference to the vasculature and the coronary flow and to investigate a possible involvement of PI3-K and its downstream effectors on the insulin effects on cardiac functions under normoxic conditions. Materials and methods: Isolated rat hearts were perfused retrogradely using the Langendorff technique. After 10 minutes of stabilization hearts were perfused for 30 minutes either with standard perfusion solution i.e. Krebs-Henseleit buffer + glucose gassed with 95%O2, 5%CO2 (control hearts), or with standard perfusion solution plus insulin alone or insulin together with the nitric oxide synthase inhibitor L-NAME or the PI3-K inhibitor wortmannin. Left ventricular developed pressure (LVDevP), heart rate (HR) and coronary flow (CF) as well as phosphorylated PI3-K and PKB/Akt in heart were measured. Results: Administration of insulin alone at physiological concentrations showed improved cardiac function compared to hearts in the control group. Hearts that received insulin+L-NAME showed a significant decrease in function compared to the control hearts and the hearts that received insulin alone (p<0.05). Phosphorylated PKB/Akt (Thr308) was increased in hearts that received insulin alone and insulin+L-NAME compared to the control hearts. Phosphorylated PI3-K tended to be higher in hearts where insulin was administered alone compared to the hearts that received insulin+L-NAME or insulin+wortmannin. Conclusion: This study confirmed that physiological concentrations of insulin exert positive inotropic effects on cardiac function in normoxic perfused rat hearts as seen with the improved LVDevP. Inhibition of PI3-K by wortmannin induced a decrease in phosphorylated PKB/Akt in hearts that received insulin+wortmannin and administration of L-NAME impaired the beneficial effects of insulin on cardiac functions. Therefore these results may indicate that nitric oxide may have a role in the positive effect of insulin on cardiac function in the healthy heart perfused under normoxic conditions. L-NAME as well as wortmannin reversed the positive inotropic effects of insulin. Both inhibitors also unmasked effects of insulin via nitric oxide and PI3-K on heart rate and coronary flow. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Inleiding: Dit is welbekend dat toediening van insulien die hart beskerm teen ischemie/reperfusie-beserings, wat lei tot verbeterde hartfunksie. Hierdie effek word wyd ondersoek in modelle van ischemie en reperfusie. Dit is bewys dat ‘n verskeidenheid seintransduksie paaie, insluitend PI3-K, PKB/Akt, p70S6k en ERK, betrokke is by hierdie beskermende effek van insulien op die hart. Baie min data is egter beskikbaar rakende die effek van insulien tydens normoksiese toestande. Alhoewel dit bekend is dat insulien ’n inotropiese effek op die normale geperfuseerde hart het, is die presiese sellulêre meganismes wat dit bewerkstellig nog nie nagevors nie. Om dus ‘n beter begrip van hierdie meganismes te verkry is dit dus noodsaaklik om die effekte van insulien onder normoksiese perfusie toestande na te vors. Doelstellings: Om ‘n geskikte dosis, waarby insulien sy positiewe inotropiese effek onder normale toestande het, vas te stel, om die moontlike meganismes betrokke by insulien-geïnduseerde verbetering in hartsametrekbaarheid te bestudeer, met spesifieke verwysing na die bloedvoorsiening en koronêre vloei, en om die moontlike betrokkenheid van die PI3-K pad en sy teiken effektore onder normale suurstof-toestande te ondersoek. Materiaal en metodes: Geïsoleerde rotharte is geperfuseer deur gebruik te maak van die Langendorff tegniek. Na ‘n stabilisasie periode van 10 minute is rotharte blootgestel aan 30 minute perfusie met een van vier oplossings: ‘n standaard perfusie oplossing (Krebs-Henseleit buffer met glukose onder spesifieke gaskondisies van 95% O2, 5% CO2 – kontrole harte); standaard perfusie oplossing en insulien; standaard perfusie oplossing met insulien en die stikstofoksied sintase inhibitor L-NAME, of standaard perfusie oplossing, met insulien en die PI3-K inhibitor wortmannin. Met verloop van die perfusie protokol, is ontwikkelde linker ventrikulêre druk (LVDevP), harttempo (HR) en koronêre vloei (CF), sowel as PI3-K en PKB/Akt fosforilasie, gemeet. Resultate: Toediening van insulien teen fisiologiese konsentrasies het ‘n verbeterde hartfunksie tot gevolg, in vergelyking met harte in die kontrole groep. In teenstelling hiermee het harte wat insulien+L-NAME ontvang het ‘n betekenisvolle verlaagde funksie getoon in vergelyking met die kontrole harte en harte wat slegs insulien ontvang het (p<0.05). Harte wat slegs insulien, of insulien+L-NAME ontvang het, het ‘n verhoging in gefosforileerde PKB/Akt (Thr308) getoon in vergelyking met kontrole harte. Gefosforileerde PI3-K het ook geneig om hoër te wees in harte wat insulien+L-NAME of insulien+wortmannin ontvang het, as in harte wat slegs insulien ontvang het. Gevolgtrekking: Hierdie studie bewys dat fisiologiese konsentrasies van insulien, onder normale suurstof-toestande, ‘n positiewe inotropiese effek op hartfunksie uitoefen, soos gesien in die verbeterde LVDevP. Wortmannin-geïnduseerde inhibering van die PI3-K pad het ‘n verlaagde PKB/Akt fosforilasie tot gevolg gehad in harte wat insulien+wortmannin ontvang het, terwyl die toediening van L-NAME die voordelige effekte van insulien op hartfunksie onderdruk het. Hierdie resultate dui dus aan dat stikstofoksied ‘n rolspeler is in die positiewe inotropsiese effek van insulien op hartfunksie tydens normoksiese toestande, aangesien beide inhibitore hierdie effek onderdruk het. Beide inhibitore het ook die betrokkenheid van stikstofoksied en die PI3-K pad by die effek van insulien op harttempo en koronêre vloei onthul.

Thesis (MScMedSc)--University of Stellenbosch, 2010. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Obesity is a major risk factor for ischaemic heart disease. Obesity-induced metabolic abnormalities have been associated with increased oxidative stress which may play an important role in the increased susceptibility to myocardial dysfunction and ischaemiareperfusion (I/R) injury seen in obesity. The pineal gland hormone, melatonin, has powerful antioxidant properties. Previous studies have shown that short-term or acute melatonin administration protects the normal healthy heart of lean animals against I/R damage. However, the effects of melatonin on the heart in obesity remain unknown. Moreover, the myocardial signalling mechanisms associated with the cardioprotective effects of melatonin have not been established. Using a rat model of diet induced obesity, we set out to: 1) investigate the effects of chronic melatonin administration on the development of diet-induced systemic alterations including biometric and metabolic parameters and oxidative stress, 2) determine whether chronic melatonin treatment protects the myocardium against ischaemia-reperfusion injury, and 3) determine whether melatonin treatment confers cardioprotection by altering the reperfusion injury salvage kinase (RISK) pathway signalling and the pro-apoptotic p38 MAPK, AMPK and GLUT-4 expression. Male rats weighing 200±20g were randomly allocated to four groups: 1) C, control rats receiving a standard commercial rat chow and drinking water without melatonin; 2) CM, control rats receiving melatonin (4mg/kg/day) in drinking water; 3) D, diet-induced obesity rats, receiving a high calorie diet and drinking water without melatonin; 4) DM, diet-induced obesity rats, receiving melatonin in drinking water. After 16 weeks of treatment and feeding, rats were weighed and blood and myocardial tissue collected to document biochemical and molecular biological changes. Hearts were perfused on the isolated working rat heart perfusion apparatus for the evaluation of myocardial function and infarct size. The Reperfusion Injury Salvage Kinases (RISK) pathway (PKB/Akt (Ser-473), ERK p42/ p44) and p38 MAPK (mitogenactivated protein kinase) were investigated in pre-and post-ischaemic hearts using Western blotting techniques. Post-ischaemic activation of AMPK (5’AMP-activated protein kinase) (Thr- 172) and GLUT-4 (glucose transporter) expression were also investigated. Serum and baseline myocardial glutathione (GSH) content were measured. In addition, serum lipid peroxidation products: thiobarbituric reactive substances (TBARS), conjugated dienes (CD) and lipid hydroperoxide (LOOH), were also determined. The high-calorie diet caused increases in body weight, visceral adiposity, heart weight, serum insulin, leptin, blood triglycerides, and low HDL-cholesterol levels. Blood glucose levels were similar for both diet fed rats and controls. Myocardial glutathione, serum glutathione, total cholesterol, TBARS, LOOH, CD as well as total cholesterol (TC) levels were not affected by the high calorie diet. Chronic melatonin treatment reduced body weight gain, visceral adiposity, heart weight, blood triglycerides, serum insulin, HOMA index, serum leptin (DM vs D, p<0.01), and increased blood HDL-C in diet treated rats while there was no effect on these parameters in control rats, despite the reduction in body weight, heart weight and visceral adiposity. Melatonin treatment had no effect on myocardial or serum GSH and LOOH in either control or diet animals. It however reduced TBARS and CD in the diet and control groups, respectively. At baseline, chronic melatonin treatment caused a significant increase in phospho-PKB/total PKB ratio and a concomitant reduction in phospho-p38 MAPK/total p38 MAPK ratio of control hearts while there were no such effects on diet-induced-obesity hearts. Infarct size was significantly reduced by melatonin in both diet and control groups (DM: 16.6±2.0%; D: 38.4±2.6% (p < 0.001), and CM: 12.8±1.5%; C: 30.4±1.0%, p<0.001). After coronary artery occlusion and 30 minutes of reperfusion, melatonin increased percentage recovery of aortic output (DM: 28.5±6.5%; D: 6.2±6.2%, p<0.01), cardiac output (DM: 44.4±5.2%; D: 26.6±5.1%, p < 0.01) and total work (DM: 34.5±5.6%; D: 20.4±7.9%, p<0.05) of diet-induced obesity hearts, while having no effect on control hearts. During reperfusion, hearts from melatonin treated rats had increased activation of PKB/Akt (p<0.01), ERK42/44 (p<0.05), and reduced p38 MAPK activation (p<0.05). There was no difference in post-ischaemic activation of AMPK (Thr-172) and GLUT-4 expression in either control or diet fed rats. We successfully demonstrated that chronic melatonin treatment prevented the development of diet-induced metabolic abnormalities and improved ex vivo myocardial function. Melatonin protected the heart against ischaemia-reperfusion injury that was exacerbated in obesity. This was achieved by activation of the RISK pathway. The antioxidant properties of melatonin were involved in these cardioprotective effects. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Vetsug of obesiteit is een van die hoof risikofaktore vir iskemiese hartsiekte. Obesiteitgeinduseerde metaboliese abnormaliteite gaan met verhoogde oksidatiewe stres gepaard wat op sy beurt ‘n belangrike rol mag speel in die miokardiale wanfunksie en verhoogde vatbaarheid vir iskemie-herperfusie (I/H) beskadiging, kenmerkend van vetsug. Melatonien, die hormoon afgeskei deur die pineaalklier, is ‘n kragtige anti-oksidant. Vorige studies het getoon dat kort-termyn of akute toediening van melatonien die normale hart van gesonde diere teen I/H beskadiging deur middel van sy anti-oksidant aksies beskerm. Die effek van melatonien op die hart in obesiteit is egter nog onbekend. Hierbenewens is die miokardiale seintransduksie meganismes geassosieer met die beskermende effekte van die hormoon nog nie ontrafel nie. ‘n Model van dieet-geinduseerde obesiteit in rotte is gebruik om die volgende te bepaal: (i) die effek van kroniese melatonientoediening op die ontwikkeling van dieet-geinduseerde sistemiese veranderinge soos biometriese en metaboliese parameters en oksidatiewe stres (ii) die effek van kroniese melatonienbehandeling op die respons van die hart op I/H beskadiging en (iii) die rol van herperfusie beskadiging op die aktivering van PKB/Akt en ERK42/44 (die sg RISK seintransduksiepad), die pro-apoptotiese p38MAPK, AMPK sowel as die uitdrukking van GLUT-4. Manlike Wistar rotte (200±20g) is ewekansig in vier groepe verdeel: (i) C, kontrole rotte wat ‘n standaard rotdieet en drinkwater sonder melatonien ontvang (ii) CM, kontrole rotte wat melatonien (4mg/kg/dag) ontvang (iii) D, dieet-geϊnduseerde vet rotte wat ‘n hoë kalorie dieet en drinkwater sonder melatonien ontvang (iv) DM, dieet-geϊnduseerde vet rotte wat melatonien (4mg/kg/dag) in die drinkwater ontvang. Na 16 weke van behandeling, is die rotte geweeg, bloed en hartweefsel gekollekteer vir biochemiese en molekulêre biologie bepalings. Harte is geperfuseer volgens die werkhartmodel, blootgestel aan iskemie/herperfusie vir evaluering van funksionele herstel en infarktgrootte. Uitdrukking en aktivering van PKB/Akt (Ser-473), ERKp42/p44 en p38MAPK van pre-en postiskemiese hartweefsel is met behulp van Western blot bepaal. Postiskemiese aktivering van AMPK (5’AMP-aktiveerde proteϊen kinase) (Thr-172) en GLUT-4 (glukose transporter) is op soortgelyke wyse bepaal. Serum en basislyn hartweefsel glutatioon (GSH) inhoud asook tiobarbituursuur reaktiewe substans (TBARS), gekonjugeerde diene (CD) en lipiedhidroperoksied (LOOH) konsentrasies is bepaal. Resultate Die hoë kalorie diet het ‘n toename in liggaamsgewig, visserale vet, hartgewig, serum insulien, leptien, plasma trigliseried en lae HDL-cholesterol vlakke teweegebring. Bloed glukosevlakke was egter dieselfde in die vet en kontrole rotte. Miokardiale glutatioon, serum glutatioon, totale cholesterol, TBARS, LOOH, CD is nie deur die dieet beinvloed nie. Chroniese melatonien behandeling het die liggaamsgewig, visserale vet, hartgewig, plasma trigliseried, serum insulien en leptien, HOMA indeks verlaag (DM vs D, p<0.05) en die HDL-cholesterol verhoog in die dieetrotte, terwyl dit geen effek op hierdie parameters in kontrole rotte gehad het nie (uitgesonderd ‘n afname in liggaamsgewig, hartgewig en visserale vet). Melatonien behandeling het geen effek op hart of serum GSH en LOOH in kontrole en vet rotte gehad nie. Dit het egter die TBARS en CD in beide vet en kontrole rotte verlaag. Chroniese melatonien toediening het ‘n beduidende toename in basislyn fosfo PKB//totale PKB ratio en ‘n afname in fosfo p38MAPK/totale p38MAPK ratio teweegebring in harte van kontrole rotte, maar soortgelyke effekte is nie in die harte van die vet rotte waargeneem nie. Infarktgrootte is beduidend deur melatonienbehandeling verlaag in beide dieet en kontrole groepe (DM: 16.6± 5.2%, D: 38.4 ±2.6% (p<0.001); CM: 12.8± 1.5%; C 30.4±1.0 (p<0.001). Na koronere arterie afbinding en 30 min van herperfusie, het melatonien die persentasie herstel van aorta omset (DM: 28.5± 6.5%; D: 6.2± 6.2%, p<0.01), kardiale omset ( DM: 44.4± 5.2%D: 26.6±5.1%, p<0.01) en totale werk (DM: 34.5 5.6%; D 20.4± 7.9%, p<0.05) in die harte van dieetrotte verbeter, terwyl dit sonder effek was in kontrole harte. Tydens herperfusie het harte van melatonienbehandelde rotte verhoogde aktivering van PKB/Akt (p<0.01) en ERKp42/p44 (p<0.05) getoon, terwyl aktivering van p38MAPK verlaag is (p<0.05). Geen verskil in postiskemiese aktivering van AMPK en GLUT-4 uitdrukking is in beide kontrole en dieetrotte waargeneem nie. Ons het daarin geslaag om aan te toon dat chroniese melatonienbehandeling die ontwikkeling van dieet-geϊnduseerde metaboliese abnormaliteite beduidend kan voorkom en ex vivo miokardiale funksie verbeter. Melatonien het ook die hart teen iskemie/herperfusie beskadiging beskerm in beide kontrole en dieetrotte. Bogenoemde veranderinge het met aktivering van PKB/Akt en ERKp42/p44 gepaard gegaan. Die anti-oksidant effekte van melatonien was heelwaarskynlik hierby betrokke.

Insulin resistance and chronic hyperglycemia promote vascular damage, increase circulating levels of inflammatory cytokines and lead to increased morbidity and mortality. MicroRNAs (miRs) -103/107 have been shown to negatively regulate insulin sensitivity and glucose homeostasis. Based on complimentary binding profiles, the downstream target gene of miR-103/107 is caveolin-1 (Cav-1). We hypothesized that daily administration of the phosphodiesterase-5 inhibitor tadalafil (TAD) ± the curcumin analogue (HO-3867) will attenuate inflammation, improve metabolic parameters and reduce infarct size after ischemia/reperfusion injury (IRI). Furthermore, we propose that TAD therapy will reduce myocardial expression of miR-103/107 and increase mRNA and protein levels of its target gene, Cav-1. Leptin receptor null mice were randomized to receive daily injections of TAD (1mg/kg), HO-3867 (25mg/Kg), combination therapy, or control for 12weeks with weight and fasting glucose monitored weekly. Upon completion, cardiomyocytes were isolated from each group and were subjected to simulated ischemia and reoxygenation (SI/RO) for cell viability and reactive oxygen species (ROS) measurement. Another set were subjected to IRI in a Langendorff model. Plasma samples were taken to measure plasma concentrations of cytokines. For miR expression, total RNA was isolated from TAD and DMSO treated mice and was subjected to reverse transcription and real time PCR using miR assay probes to determine expression. TAD, HO-3867 and the combination of both attenuated fasting glucose levels, reduced myocardial infarct size after IRI and inflammatory cytokines when compared to control (p<0.05 for each vs. control). Cardiomyocytes isolated from each treatment groups and subjected to SI/RO demonstrated reduced necrosis as shown by trypan blue exclusion assay, ROS generation, and improved mitochondrial membrane potential as compared to DMSO (control). Likewise, both mRNA and protein expression of Cav-1 were reduced in diabetic hearts but were significantly increased in TAD treated diabetic mice, which may be a mechanism to improve insulin signaling through downregulation of miR-103/107 and upregulation of Cav-1. These studies suggest that TAD alone or in combination may be a unique strategy to improve metabolic parameters and precondition diabetic hearts against IRI.

IN ENGLISH The ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury, which is a consequence of myocardial infarction, represents a major cause of death worldwide. One of the most effective cardioprotective interventions increasing the resistance of hearts to the I/R injury is the adaptation to a chronic hypoxia (CH). However, the molecular mechanisms of CH are still not well understood. The most important factors responsible for the I/R injury are reactive oxygen species (ROS) produced by complexes I and III within the mitochondrial electron transport chain. Potential candidates maintaining ROS at a low level are mitochondrial creatine kinase (mtCK) and two hexokinase isoforms (HK1 and HK2). These enzymes highly support the mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation by increasing the availability of ADP for complex V of the respiratory chain. In addition, the HK binding to mitochondria inhibits binding of the pro- apoptotic protein BAX, thereby protecting cardiac cells against apoptosis. Besides the mitochondrial CK isoform, there are two cytosolic CK (CKM and CKB) present in cardiomyocytes that help to maintain energy homeostasis. Based on the known anatomical and physiological differences between the left (LV) and the right (RV) ventricles, the first study focused on the comparing ventricles in terms of the energy...

A doença renal policística autossômica dominante (DRPAD) constitui-se na enfermidade humana monogênica com risco de óbito mais frequente, responsabilizando-se por 4,4 a 10,0% dos casos de doença renal terminal em diferentes populações. Na quase totalidade dos pacientes, a doença é causada por mutação em um de dois genes: PKD1 (polycystic kidney disease 1) ou PKD2 (polycystic kidney disease 2). Tais genes codificam, respectivamente, as proteínas policistina-1 (PC1) e policistina-2 (PC2). Mutações em PKD1, por sua vez, respondem pela ampla maioria dos casos de DRPAD. Camundongos haploinsuficientes para Pkd1 (Pkd1+/-), o gene ortólogo a PKD1 neste animal, consistem num modelo não cístico de deficiência de atividade deste gene. Em um estudo anterior, mostramos que animais Pkd1+/- apresentam lesão renal mais severa que camundongos selvagens (Pkd1+/+) quando submetidos a isquemia/reperfusão (I/R) renal. Esse estudo sugeriu, portanto, que a capacidade de regeneração renal pós-I/R esteja prejudicada em camundongos Pkd1+/- e em pacientes com DRPAD. O insulto por I/R constitui-se em uma causa importante de indução de estresse de retículo endoplasmático (ER), podendo ativar as vias UPR (unfolded protein response) e ERAD (ER-associated degradation). Além disso, a ativação de vias envolvidas no ER determinado por I/R exerce um efeito de agravamento da lesão decorrente deste insulto. O ER pode, ainda, ativar e ser induzido pela resposta inflamatória. Estudos prévios revelaram que as policistinas também se relacionam com este processo. A expressão de PC2 pode ser superregulada pela ativação de um dos braços da via UPR, enquanto a ativação da via ERAD estimula sua degradação. A superexpressão de XBP1, por sua vez, atenua o fenótipo cístico em camundongos deficientes em Pkd1, revelando que a ativação da via UPR pode mitigar a formação cística. Para analisar a relação entre ER e suscetibilidade aumentada a I/R na deficiência de Pkd1, avaliamos diferentes marcadores de ER em camundongos Pkd1+/- e Pkd1+/+ submetidos a um insulto leve por I/R renal associado a 32 min de isquemia. A razão de expressão renal dos mRNAs Xbp1s/Xbp1u mostrou-se menor em camundongos Pkd1+/- que Pkd1 +/+ 48 h após I/R, enquanto a expressão proteica de XBP1s foi maior em rins Pkd1+/- comparados a Pkd1+/+ após o insulto. Não detectamos diferença na expressão renal do gene Hspa5 e de seu produto BIP/GRP78, assim como na expressão de Ddit3, gene que codifica CHOP, após intervenção sham e após I/R. Também não observamos diferenças entre os níveis renais e séricos de IL1beta, IL6, IL10, TNFalfa e RANTES entre camundongos Pkd1+/- e Pkd1+/+ pós-procedimento sham e pós-I/R, embora tendências não significantes de elevação de MCP1 tenham sido detectadas nos rins submetidos ao insulto para ambos os genótipos. As variações em sentidos opostos de XBP1s e Xbp1s/Xbp1u determinadas por I/R em rins Pkd1+/- são consistentes com uma maior suscetibilidade destes animais à indução de ER. Esses achados sugerem que a indução de ER em resposta a um insulto leve por I/R possa aumentar a atividade de PC1 e exercer um efeito de atenuação sobre a maior suscetibilidade de camundongos deficientes em Pkd1 a I/R renal / Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD) is the most common life-threatening monogenic disease in humans, accounting for 4.4 to 10.0% of the end-stage kidney disease cases in different populations. In almost all patients, this disorder is caused by a mutation in one of two genes: PKD1 (polycystic kidney disease 1) or PKD2 (polycystic kidney disease 2). These genes encode, respectively, the proteins polycystin-1 (PC1) and polycystin-2 (PC2). Mutations in PKD1, in turn, are responsible for the large majority of ADPKD cases. Pkd1- haploinsufficient mice (Pkd1+/-), the gene orthologous to PKD1 in this animal, constitute a noncystic model of this gene\'s deficiency. In a previous study, we showed that Pkd1+/- animals develop a more severe renal injury than wild-type mice (Pkd1+/+) when submitted to renal ischemia/reperfusion (I/R). This study suggested, therefore, that the capacity of renal regeneration following I/R is impaired in Pkd1+/- mice and in ADPKD patients. The I/R insult is an important cause of endoplasmic reticulum stress (RS) induction, potentially leading to activation of the UPR (unfolded protein response) and ERAD (ER-associated degradation) pathways. The activation of pathways involved in RS determined by I/R exerts an aggravating effect on the injury resulting from the insult. In addition, RS can activate and be induced by the inflammatory response. Previous studies revealed that polycystins also relate to this process. PC2 expression can be upregulated by the activation of one of the UPR pathway branches, while activation of the ERAD pathway stimulates its degradation. XBP1 overexpression, in turn, attenuates the cystic phenotype in Pkd1-deficient mice, revealing that activation of UPR can mitigate cyst formation. To analyze the relationship between RS and the increased susceptibility to I/R associated to Pkd1 deficiency, we evaluated different RS markers in Pkd1+/- and Pkd1+/+ mice submitted to a mild I/R insult determined by 32-min ischemia. The renal expression ratio of mRNA Xbp1s/Xbp1u was lower in Pkd1+/- than Pkd1+/+ mice 48 h after I/R, while the XBP1s protein expression was higher in Pkd1+/- compared to Pkd1+/+ kidneys after the insult. We have not detected differences in renal expression of the Hspa5 gene and its product BIP/GRP78, as well as in Ddit3 expression, the gene that encodes CHOP, postsham intervention and post-I/R. We have also not observed differences in the renal and serum levels of IL1beta, IL6, IL10, TNFalfa and RANTES between Pkd1+/- e Pkd1+/+ mice post-sham procedure and post-I/R, although non-significant trends of MCP1 increase have been detected in kidneys submitted to the insult for both genotypes. The variations in different directions of XBP1s and Xbp1s/Xbp1u induced by I/R in Pkd1+/- kidneys are consistent with a higher susceptibility of these animals to RS induction. These findings suggest that the RS induction in response to a mild I/R insult can increase PC1 activity and exert an attenuating effect on the increased susceptibility of Pkd1-deficient mice to renal I/R

Introdução: A hipotermia tópica e o pré-condicionamento isquêmico local isoladamente reduzem a lesão renal por isquemia-reperfusão (I/R). Possivelmente, a associação de ambas estratégias tem efeitos protetores sinergísticos. Objetivos: Estudar os efeitos do pré-condicionamento local associado a hipotermia tópica na lesão renal por I/R, principalmente quanto às alterações histológicas, dano por estresse oxidativo, atividade antioxidante tecidual e parâmetros bioquímicos funcionais. Métodos: Quarenta ratos Wistar foram aleatoriamente alocados para cinco protocolos experimentais realizados no rim esquerdo: hipotermia tópica por 40 min sem isquemia (HT), isquemia quente por 40 min (IR), pré-condicionamento isquêmico (15 min de isquemia + 10 min de reperfusão) seguido de isquemia quente por 40 min (PCI+IR), isquemia fria por 40 min (HT+IR) e pré-condicionamento isquêmico seguido de isquemia fria por 40 min (PCI+HT+IR). Nefrectomia direita foi realizada em todos os ratos antes de qualquer procedimento. Oito rins direitos aleatoriamente designados constituíram o grupo controle Após 240 min de reperfusão, o rim esquerdo foi retirado para avaliar as alterações histológicas, a peroxidação lipídica (níveis de F2-isoprostanos [F2IP]) e a atividade enzimática antioxidante (catalase [CAT] e superóxido dismutase [SOD]). A função renal foi avaliada através da creatinina e uréia séricas. Resultados: O grupo PCI+HT+IR não foi diferente dos outros grupos submetidos a isquemia quanto às alterações histológicas, peroxidação lipídica e atividade enzimática antioxidante. A creatinina no grupo PCI+HT+IR foi mais baixa comparado ao grupo PCI+IR, mas semelhante ao grupo HT+IR. Conclusões: A combinação de pré-condicionamento local e hipotermia tópica não resultou em proteção à lesão por I/R. Além disso, o PCI local isolado seguido de isquemia quente prejudicou a função renal mais que a isquemia quente isolada. / Purpose: Topical hypothermia and local ischemic preconditioning have been shown to reduce renal ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury individually. We examined whether combination of both strategies lessens renal I/R injury. Methods: Post right nephrectomy, 40 male Wistar rats were randomly assigned to five experimental protocols performed in the left kidney: topical hypothermia without ischemia (TH), warm ischemia (IR), ischemic preconditioning followed by warm ischemia (IPC+IR), cold ischemia (TH+IR), and ischemic preconditioning followed by cold ischemia (IPC+TH+IR). Eight randomly assigned right kidneys constituted the control group. After 240 min of reperfusion, the left kidney was retrieved to evaluate histological changes, lipid peroxidation and antioxidant enzymes activity. Serum was collected to evaluate urea and creatinine. Results: IPC+TH+IR group revealed no difference to any other group subjected to ischemia in relation to histological changes, lipid peroxidation and antioxidant enzymes activity. Creatinine was lower in IPC+TH+IR group compared with IPC+IR, but showed no difference compared to TH+IR group. Conclusions: Combination of local ischemic preconditioning (IPC) and topical hypothermia conferred no protection in renal I/R injury. Moreover, local IPC solely followed by warm ischemia impaired renal function more than warm ischemia alone.