This thesis takes as its subject Paul’s use of sarcasm, using 2 Corinthians 10–13 as a case study. While there has been some work done on the related subject of irony in the Pauline corpus, scholarship has not addressed the issue of sarcasm specifically. For this reason, not only is a dedicated work on sarcasm useful for its own sake, but it also has the potential to nuance previous work on irony, as it can be difficult to generalize when dealing with such a broad rhetorical category. Due to the paucity of previous work on sarcasm – or related subjects – in Paul, the second major contribution of the study will be methodological. The goal of this discussion is to generate a working definition of sarcasm and to develop techniques for sarcasm recognition in ancient texts. To this end, I will survey ancient and modern thought on sarcasm so as to benefit from the insights of contemporary research while grounding the work in categories relevant to a Pauline context. Following the question of method, the final task will be an analysis of 2 Cor 10–13. Here the aim is threefold: to identify and analyze sarcastic statements, to address instances where the presence of sarcasm can contribute to the discussion of exegetical issues, and finally, to draw broader conclusions about the rhetorical effects of Paul’s use of sarcasm. / Thesis / Master of Arts (MA) / This thesis analyzes Paul’s use of sarcasm in 2 Corinthians 10–13. To this end, the first two chapters seek to answer the questions: What is sarcasm? And, how do we find sarcasm in ancient texts far removed from our own culture? We approach these questions by surveying both ancient and modern thought on sarcasm. The goal at this point is to draw as straight a line as possible from classical to contemporary discussions, so that our analysis of Paul can benefit the insights of recent work while remaining grounded in terms current to Paul’s day. With this background, it is then possible to address Paul’s use of sarcasm in 2 Corinthians 10–13. The primary aims of this chapter are to identify sarcastic statements and analyze how they contribute to Paul’s overall argumentation. Additionally, instances where our analysis can contribute to scholarly debates over certain passages are also addressed.

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Social media platforms, like Twitter, offer a face-saving ability that allows users to express themselves employing figurative language devices such as irony to achieve different communication purposes. Dealing with such kind of content represents a big challenge for computational linguistics. Irony is closely associated with the indirect expression of feelings, emotions and evaluations. Interest in detecting the presence of irony in social media texts has grown significantly in the recent years. In this thesis, we introduce the problem of detecting irony in social media under a computational linguistics perspective. We propose to address this task by focusing, in particular, on the role of affective information for detecting the presence of such figurative language device. Attempting to take advantage of the subjective intrinsic value enclosed in ironic expressions, we present a novel model, called emotIDM, for detecting irony relying on a wide range of affective features. For characterising an ironic utterance, we used an extensive set of resources covering different facets of affect from sentiment to finer-grained emotions. Results show that emotIDM has a competitive performance across the experiments carried out, validating the effectiveness of the proposed approach. Another objective of the thesis is to investigate the differences among tweets labeled with #irony and #sarcasm. Our aim is to contribute to the less investigated topic in computational linguistics on the separation between irony and sarcasm in social media, again, with a special focus on affective features. We also studied a less explored hashtag: #not. We find data-driven arguments on the differences among tweets containing these hashtags, suggesting that the above mentioned hashtags are used to refer different figurative language devices. We identify promising features based on affect-related phenomena for discriminating among different kinds of figurative language devices. We also analyse the role of polarity reversal in tweets containing ironic hashtags, observing that the impact of such phenomenon varies. In the case of tweets labeled with #sarcasm often there is a full reversal, whereas in the case of those tagged with #irony there is an attenuation of the polarity. We analyse the impact of irony and sarcasm on sentiment analysis, observing a drop in the performance of NLP systems developed for this task when irony is present. Therefore, we explored the possible use of our findings in irony detection for the development of an irony-aware sentiment analysis system, assuming that the identification of ironic content could help to improve the correct identification of sentiment polarity. To this aim, we incorporated emotIDM into a pipeline for determining the polarity of a given Twitter message. We compared our results with the state of the art determined by the "Semeval-2015 Task 11" shared task, demonstrating the relevance of considering affective information together with features alerting on the presence of irony for performing sentiment analysis of figurative language for this kind of social media texts. To summarize, we demonstrated the usefulness of exploiting different facets of affective information for dealing with the presence of irony in Twitter. / Las plataformas de redes sociales, como Twitter, ofrecen a los usuarios la posibilidad de expresarse de forma libre y espontanea haciendo uso de diferentes recursos lingüísticos como la ironía para lograr diferentes propósitos de comunicación. Manejar ese tipo de contenido representa un gran reto para la lingüística computacional. La ironía está estrechamente vinculada con la expresión indirecta de sentimientos, emociones y evaluaciones. El interés en detectar la presencia de ironía en textos de redes sociales ha aumentado significativamente en los últimos años. En esta tesis, introducimos el problema de detección de ironía en redes sociales desde una perspectiva de la lingüística computacional. Proponemos abordar dicha tarea enfocándonos, particularmente, en el rol de información relativa al afecto y las emociones para detectar la presencia de dicho recurso lingüístico. Con la intención de aprovechar el valor intrínseco de subjetividad contenido en las expresiones irónicas, presentamos un modelo para detectar la presencia de ironía denominado emotIDM, el cual está basado en una amplia variedad de rasgos afectivos. Para caracterizar instancias irónicas, utilizamos un amplio conjunto de recursos que cubren diferentes ámbitos afectivos: desde sentimientos (positivos o negativos) hasta emociones específicas definidas con una granularidad fina. Los resultados obtenidos muestran que emotIDM tiene un desempeño competitivo en los experimentos realizados, validando la efectividad del enfoque propuesto. Otro objetivo de la tesis es investigar las diferencias entre tweets etiquetados con #irony y #sarcasm. Nuestra finalidad es contribuir a un tema menos investigado en lingüística computacional: la separación entre el uso de ironía y sarcasmo en redes sociales, con especial énfasis en rasgos afectivos. Además, estudiamos un hashtag que ha sido menos analizado: #not. Nuestros resultados parecen evidenciar que existen diferencias entre los tweets que contienen dichos hashtags, sugiriendo que son utilizados para hacer referencia de diferentes recursos lingüísticos. Identificamos un conjunto de características basadas en diferentes fenómenos afectivos que parecen ser útiles para discriminar entre diferentes tipos de recursos lingüísticos. Adicionalmente analizamos la reversión de polaridad en tweets que contienen hashtags irónicos, observamos que el impacto de dicho fenómeno es diferente en cada uno de ellos. En el caso de los tweets que están etiquetados con el hashtag #sarcasm, a menudo hay una reversión total, mientras que en el caso de los tweets etiquetados con el hashtag #irony se produce una atenuación de la polaridad. Llevamos a cabo un estudio del impacto de la ironía y el sarcasmo en el análisis de sentimientos, observamos una disminución en el rendimiento de los sistemas de PLN desarrollados para dicha tarea cuando la ironía está presente. Por consiguiente, exploramos la posibilidad de utilizar nuestros resultados en detección de ironía para el desarrollo de un sistema de análisis de sentimientos que considere de la presencia de ironía, suponiendo que la detección de contenido irónico podría ayudar a mejorar la correcta identificación del sentimiento expresado en un texto dado. Con este objetivo, incorporamos emotIDM como la primera fase en un sistema de análisis de sentimientos para determinar la polaridad de mensajes en Twitter. Comparamos nuestros resultados con el estado del arte establecido en la tarea de evaluación "Semeval-2015 Task 11", demostrando la importancia de utilizar información afectiva en conjunto con características que alertan de la presencia de la ironía para desempeñar análisis de sentimientos en textos con lenguaje figurado que provienen de redes sociales. En resumen, demostramos la utilidad de aprovechar diferentes aspectos de información relativa al afecto y las emociones para tratar cuestiones relativas a la presencia de la ironí / Les plataformes de xarxes socials, com Twitter, oferixen als usuaris la possibilitat d'expressar-se de forma lliure i espontània fent ús de diferents recursos lingüístics com la ironia per aconseguir diferents propòsits de comunicació. Manejar aquest tipus de contingut representa un gran repte per a la lingüística computacional. La ironia està estretament vinculada amb l'expressió indirecta de sentiments, emocions i avaluacions. L'interés a detectar la presència d'ironia en textos de xarxes socials ha augmentat significativament en els últims anys. En aquesta tesi, introduïm el problema de detecció d'ironia en xarxes socials des de la perspectiva de la lingüística computacional. Proposem abordar aquesta tasca enfocant-nos, particularment, en el rol d'informació relativa a l'afecte i les emocions per detectar la presència d'aquest recurs lingüístic. Amb la intenció d'aprofitar el valor intrínsec de subjectivitat contingut en les expressions iròniques, presentem un model per a detectar la presència d'ironia denominat emotIDM, el qual està basat en una àmplia varietat de trets afectius. Per caracteritzar instàncies iròniques, utilitzàrem un ampli conjunt de recursos que cobrixen diferents àmbits afectius: des de sentiments (positius o negatius) fins emocions específiques definides de forma molt detallada. Els resultats obtinguts mostres que emotIDM té un rendiment competitiu en els experiments realitzats, validant l'efectivitat de l'enfocament proposat. Un altre objectiu de la tesi és investigar les diferències entre tweets etiquetats com a #irony i #sarcasm. La nostra finalitat és contribuir a un tema menys investigat en lingüística computacional: la separació entre l'ús d'ironia i sarcasme en xarxes socials, amb especial èmfasi amb els trets afectius. A més, estudiem un hashtag que ha sigut menys estudiat: #not. Els nostres resultats pareixen evidenciar que existixen diferències entre els tweets que contenen els hashtags esmentats, cosa que suggerix que s'utilitzen per fer referència de diferents recursos lingüístics. Identifiquem un conjunt de característiques basades en diferents fenòmens afectius que pareixen ser útils per a discriminar entre diferents tipus de recursos lingüístics. Addicionalment analitzem la reversió de polaritat en tweets que continguen hashtags irònics, observant que l'impacte del fenomen esmentat és diferent per a cadascun d'ells. En el cas dels tweet que estan etiquetats amb el hashtag #sarcasm, a sovint hi ha una reversió total, mentre que en el cas dels tweets etiquetats amb el hashtag #irony es produïx una atenuació de polaritat. Duem a terme un estudi de l'impacte de la ironia i el sarcasme en l'anàlisi de sentiments, on observem una disminució en el rendiment dels sistemes de PLN desenvolupats per a aquestes tasques quan la ironia està present. Per consegüent, vam explorar la possibilitat d'utilitzar els nostres resultats en detecció d'ironia per a desenvolupar un sistema d'anàlisi de sentiments que considere la presència d'ironia, suposant que la detecció de contingut irònic podria ajudar a millorar la correcta identificació del sentiment expressat en un text donat. Amb aquest objectiu, incorporem emotIDM com la primera fase en un sistema d'anàlisi de sentiments per determinar la polaritat de missatges en Twitter. Hem comparat els nostres resultats amb l'estat de l'art establert en la tasca d'avaluació "Semeval-2015 Task 11", demostrant la importància d'utilitzar informació afectiva en conjunt amb característiques que alerten de la presència de la ironia per exercir anàlisi de sentiments en textos amb llenguatge figurat que provenen de xarxes socials. En resum, hem demostrat la utilitat d'aprofitar diferents aspectes d'informació relativa a l'afecte i les emocions per tractar qüestions relatives a la presència d'ironia en Twitter. / Hernández Farias, DI. (2017). Irony and Sarcasm Detection in Twitter: The Role of Affective Content [Tesis doctoral no publicada]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/90544 / TESIS

Published Articles / The dawn of a democratic South Africa in 1994 established a society entrenched in Human Rights milieu. As such, public schools are meant to align their policies with the rule of the law. Particularly, section 10 (1) of South African Schools Act, 84 1996 (hereafter SASA) respectfully prohibits the administration of corporal punishment directed at a learner in public schools. The subsequent section 10 (2) of SASA admonishes that any person contravening section 10 (1) of SASA is liable on conviction to a sentence which could be imposed for assault. These mentioned provisions of the school legislation are consistent with section 10 of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa (RSA) which affords every person the inherent right to dignity of the person. Against the afore-mentioned legislative provisions, teachers have resorted to the use of sarcasm as a tool to inflict punishment in the manner that it could be equated with corporal punishment. Sarcasm is a form of language that is used to cause emotional and psychological harm, belittle, ridicule and humiliate the person it directed at. Judged against the provisions of the legislation governing schools in South African public schools, sarcasm could be said to be a direct violation of fundamental rights of learners to dignity of the person. In order to explore the intonation of sarcasm as supplement for corporal punishment the research paper employed a qualitative critical emancipatory research (CER) approach. Data gathered through a purposive sample of ten secondary teachers was analysed by the use of textual oriented discourse analyses.

There are many forms of humor. Irreverent, dark, and black humor have been used throughout history for social commentary. Irony, parody, sarcasm, and satire can break through preconceived notions, barriers and the tensions we experience when confronted with uncomfortable issues such as bigotry, elitism, and genetic superiority. Humor provides an opportunity for a release of tension giving way to a more receptive audience and a more effective message. My thesis is an exploration of the use of irreverent, dark, annd black humor as vehicles for effective social commentary in communication design.

Ordet ironi definieras som ett yttrande där "betydelsen är motsatsen till orden". Denna rapport är en fortsatt studie på Peder Palmérs studie Vad är ironiskt tal: att hitta de auditiva ledtrådarna (2013). Materialet som ligger till grund för denna uppföljande studie består av inspelningar av tre olika talare med fem olika meningar i fem olika sinnesstämningar; glädje, ilska, allvar, ironi och sarkasm. Trettio män och kvinnor i åldern 18-60 år har lyssnat på dessa meningar och kategoriserat dem utifrån tolkad sinnesstämning. Till detta användes avsedd blankett. Författarna har uppmätt grundton och intensitet som har jämförts mellan de olika sinnesstämningarna. Grundton har också jämförts mellan de tre talarna. Dessa jämförelser ligger till grund för en analys som kan ge information om betydelsen av dessa akustiska parametrar, liksom andra faktorer såsom kontext, vid identifiering av olika stämningar. Syftet är att undersöka om de sinnesstämningar som testpersonerna oftast förväxlar är mest lika ur ett akustiskt perspektiv, och att hitta ett eventuellt samband mellan grundton, intensitet och testpersonernas perceptuella tolkning. Det insamlade materialet analyserades utifrån aktuella frågeställningar. Studiens resultat påvisar att det är svårt att enbart utifrån akustiska parametrar tolka sinnesstämning. Grundtonsfrekvens och intensitet förefaller ha en viss betydelse när det kommer till förväxlingar mellan ironi och andra sinnesstämningar. Inga skillnader påvisas mellan mäns och kvinnors förmåga att identifiera ironi och sarkasm enbart utifrån akustiska parametrar. / The word irony is defined as an utterance where the meaning is the opposite of the words. This report is a continuing study of Peder Palmér's study What is ironic speech: to find the auditory clues (2013). The basis for this follow-up study consists of recordings with three different talkers with five sentences in five different moods: happiness, anger, seriousness, irony and sarcasm. Thirty men and women aged 18 to 60 years have been listening to the sentences and categorized them based on interpreted mood. The authors have measured fundamental frequency and intensity, and used these measurements as a basis to elucidate the perception of irony and the ability to perceive mood based on changes in fundamental frequency and intensity. The fundamental frequency has also been compared between the three talkers. An acoustic comparison between the different moods forms the basis for the analysis, which can provide information about the importance of acoustic parameters, as well as other factors such as context, when identifying different moods. The aim is to examine whether the moods that are most similar from an acoustic perspective are the ones that the test subjects most often fail to distinguish. The results show that it is difficult to solely from acoustic parameters interpret mood. Fundamental frequency and intensity appear to be of some importance when confusing irony with other moods. No differences were found between men and women's ability to detect irony and sarcasm based solely on acoustic parameters.

abstract: Sarcasm is a nuanced form of language where usually, the speaker explicitly states the opposite of what is implied. Imbued with intentional ambiguity and subtlety, detecting sarcasm is a difficult task, even for humans. Current works approach this challenging problem primarily from a linguistic perspective, focusing on the lexical and syntactic aspects of sarcasm. In this thesis, I explore the possibility of using behavior traits intrinsic to users of sarcasm to detect sarcastic tweets. First, I theorize the core forms of sarcasm using findings from the psychological and behavioral sciences, and some observations on Twitter users. Then, I develop computational features to model the manifestations of these forms of sarcasm using the user's profile information and tweets. Finally, I combine these features to train a supervised learning model to detect sarcastic tweets. I perform experiments to extensively evaluate the proposed behavior modeling approach and compare with the state-of-the-art. / Dissertation/Thesis / Masters Thesis Computer Science 2014

In Sepedi, there is a problem of using irony instead of satire in reference to literary genres. The difference between the two concepts is that irony is a figure of speech and satire is a text type. To bring clarity on this issue, an attempt was made to give a thorough explanation of these concepts. In addition to this, emphasis was on the indication of how irony is employed in writing satire , explanation of structure of genres classified as irony, the correct name for such writings and an indication of how style differentiates those genres. Satire as a literary genre, like moral and didactical narratives has the aim of exposing evil in the society. In the light of this, an attempt was made to differentiate between satire as a literary genre and as a didactical narrative. In an attempt to clarify this, use was made of narratological model which emphasises content, plot and style in genre analysis. Irony as a figure of speech is embedded in the analysis of style in a text. This implies contrast which may be vertical or horizontal, depending on the position of words, sentences or morphemes in a sentence. When used vertically, it gives a meaning different from the reality, thus saying the opposite of what one means. To give a thorough explanation of the concept of satire, it was differentiated from moral stories by using two short stories namely, ‘Nna nka se je dipute…’ from Mantšhaotlogele (1985) by S.N. Nkadimeng and ‘Nka se sa boeletša’ from Medupi ya megokgo (1985) by D.L.M Mpepele. The two short stories were preferred in this study because of remarkable resemblances in respect of their content. They both outline the conflict between the child and a parent and they are similar in setting and milieu. The differences of these concepts as outlined in the summary of this work lies in their style. In his work, Nkadimeng stated the conflict in such a way that it is resolved by introducing a new character, the father in this case, who seemed to be passive all along. He intervenes in the conflict to act as the conscience of the mother, jolting her to her senses on time. Nkadimeng’s style is cool and calm, thus creates a pleasant atmosphere. Mpepele outlined the conflict until the parent acknowledges his wrong behaviour and confesses that he will never do it again. The father thus learned a hard way. Mpepele’s style is sharp, self – biting and spells out venom which effectively intercepts the lesson the father must learn. / Thesis (DLitt)--University of Pretoria, 2012. / African Languages / unrestricted

In the current study, 34 nine graders in a Swedish school were given a test where they would interpret sarcastic and ironic utterances from the American series Modern Family by explaining the implication in their own words. They were also asked to assess their own knowledge of English by filling out a questionnaire containing both qualitative and quantitative questions. The aims were to investigate whether the students understood the implications and if the total score could be connected to their own perception of their level of proficiency. The results show that although plenty of the students assessed themselves being highly comfortable with English as a foreign language, it did not result in a high understanding of sarcastic and ironic utterances. Out of 646 possible points, the students only reached a score of 156 in total. It was also clear that their self assessments did not comply with their results. While confident students received low scores, insecure students did well on the test.

Cette recherche étudie le développement de la compréhension de l’ironie (traitements cognitifs, traitements émotionnels et jugements émotionnels) chez les enfants âgés de 8 à 11 ans. Quatre études ont été menées sur la même population avec le même matériel de recueil de données. Premièrement, nous avons créé et validé une échelle de traitements cognitifs composée de trois capacités graduellement acquises. Cet outil nous a permis de montrer, d’une part, que la compréhension cognitive du compliment ironique s’élabore entre 8 et 11 ans, alors que celle de la critique ironique émerge avant 8 ans. D’autre part, il existe une asymétrie de compréhension cognitive selon la nature de l’ironie (compliment ou critique). Deuxièmement, nous avons étudié les interprétations des fonctions (humour, méchanceté, gentillesse) de l’ironie effectuées par les enfants qui la comprennent. Pour cela, nous avons pris en compte à la fois les traitements émotionnels (attribution d’intention au locuteur) et les jugements émotionnels (jugement du locuteur). Quels que soient l’âge et la nature de l’ironie, les interprétations agressives de l’ironie sont fréquentes. En situation de compliment ironique, les interprétations humoristiques et gentilles sont de moins en moins fréquentes entre 8 et 11 ans. En revanche, en situation de critique ironique, aucune interprétation ne se développe durant cette période. Troisièmement, nous avons mis en évidence trois facteurs sous-jacents aux traitements de l’ironie. Les facteurs humoristique et cognitif se développent différemment selon la nature de l’ironie, contrairement au facteur affectif. Quatrièmement, une perspective différentielle a permis de mettre en évidence trois profils d’enfants observateurs de l’ironie qui se distinguent sur les trois traitements étudiés. Les facteurs cognitifs et conatifs explorés n’expliquent pas les différences entre les profils. Ces profils pourraient être expliqués par les expériences sociales, le tempérament ou encore le développement cognitif et émotionnel. / This research deals with the development of irony understanding (cognitive treatments, emotional treatments and emotional judgments) among children aged 8 to 11 years old. Four independent studies were led on the same population with the same material of data collection. In the first place, we created and validated a scale of cognitive understanding made up of three levels of gradually acquired skills. This tool enable us to show, on one hand, that the cognitive understanding of the ironic compliment develops between 8 and 11 years, while that of the ironic criticism begins before the age of 8. On the other hand, there is an asymmetry of cognitive understanding according to the nature of the irony (compliment or criticism). Secondly, we studied the interpretations of the functions (funniness, meanness, niceness) of irony made by the children who understand it. For that purpose, we took into account at the same time the emotional treatments (attribution of intention to the speaker) and emotional judgments (judgment of the speaker). Whatever the age and the nature of the irony, the aggressive interpretations of the irony are frequent. In situation of ironic compliment, the funny and kind interpretations are less and less frequent between 8 and 11 years. On the other hand, in situation of ironic criticism, no interpretation develops during this period. Thirdly, we highlighted three underlying factors of ironic treatments. The humoristic and cognitive factors develop differently according to the nature of the irony, contrary to the emotional factor. Fourthly, a differential perspective study reveals three profiles of irony observers which distinguish themselves on each of the treatments studied. The cognitive and conative factors explored do not explain the differences between the profiles. However, these profiles could be explained by social experiences, temperament or cognitive and emotional development.