In his article, "What Metaphors Mean," Donald Davidson presented his own unique theory of metaphor. While this theory has proved to be influential, there seems to be one problem which a Davidsonian theory cannot account for: the dead metaphor problem. Due to certain aspects of Davidson's theory of metaphor, critics argue that it is impossible for Davidson to explain how dead metaphors form. In this thesis, I will show why Davidson's account should be chosen over other prominent theories of metaphor, and how a Davidsonian might be able to bypass the dead metaphor problem. / Master of Arts

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La présente étude, faisant objet d’une thèse de doctorat, a trait à l’étude des expressions idiomatiques en lien avec la représentation spatiale en italien. Ce travail a pour objectif d’étudier et d’analyser ces expressions idiomatiques dans la langue italienne, en nous intéressant aux implications que cela peut avoir sur la représentation de l’espace en italien. L’étude que nous nous proposons de mener a pour objet la compréhension de ces structures figées en italien et de leurs équivalents en français. L’analyse des effets des expressions idiomatiques dans le discours du langage quotidien, rendue possible par l’élaboration d’un corpus de 25 romans graphiques, a été l’occasion de mieux comprendre la productivité de ces locutions figées. / This study as a doctoral thesis, deals with the analysis of the idiomatic expressions and spatial reference in the Italian and French languages. This research was aimed at describing the meanings of an idiom's element that plays important role in idiom interpretation and use, by raising the question of various non-literal forms evolves with a particular context as graphic novels. This work focuses on a systemic analysis of idiom types, the evidence relating to one major classes of idiom comprehension models: non-composition models, which assume the compositional meanings of phrases and sentences are routinely generated and used in the development of 25 graphic novels; the items are considered as one opportunity to better understand the structure of the idiom.

<p>The aim of this study has been to analyse metaphorical strings which have been interpreted literally, a process referred to as metaphor reversal. This was first described by Löflund (1999:18) and the specific term was later coined by Alm-Arvius (2006:6). Metaphor reversal is basically a subcategory of the broader term polysemy punning.</p><p>When a metaphor unexpectedly is interpreted literally, a humorous effect takes place and a pun is created. Especially if the metaphorisation in question has an entrenched figurative meaning, the unexpectedness of the literal interpretation is greater and the pun more obvious. The examples of these puns exploiting metaphor reversal have been taken from films featuring the verbal comedian Groucho Marx (GM), who frequently used this type and other kinds of puns in his films.</p><p>The terms internal and external metaphor, coined by Alm-Arvius (2003:78), have been used in order to distinguish between two different types of metaphorisations. Internal metaphor refers to metaphors with obvious internal collocational clashes and external metaphor refers to metaphors without such clashes, which can thus be given a literal as well as a figurative reading. However, this is not a clear-cut distinction and occasional overlapping between the two categories is common. Therefore, a continuum has been given which shows the overlapping category ‘more figurative external metaphors’. These are metaphors without collocational clashes, but with entrenched figurative meanings which make them metaphorical and not literal.</p><p>GM does not only revert external metaphors; he also reverts internal metaphors although this category contains collocational clashes which should make a literal interpretation impossible. Internal metaphor puns tend to be more absurd than external metaphor puns due to the collocational clashes which make the literal interpretation less probable. Reverted external metaphors are referred to as REM and reverted internal metaphors as RIM.</p><p>Most examples analysed are metaphorisations with idiom status with clearly preferred figurative meanings. Consequently, their figurative meanings are deeply entrenched and should not be altered. However, these figurative meanings are altered by GM in his punning; they are reverted and interpreted literally. This indicates that one of the few occasions when it is accepted or even possible to interpret a metaphorical idiom literally is in punning.</p>

The aim of this study has been to analyse metaphorical strings which have been interpreted literally, a process referred to as metaphor reversal. This was first described by Löflund (1999:18) and the specific term was later coined by Alm-Arvius (2006:6). Metaphor reversal is basically a subcategory of the broader term polysemy punning. When a metaphor unexpectedly is interpreted literally, a humorous effect takes place and a pun is created. Especially if the metaphorisation in question has an entrenched figurative meaning, the unexpectedness of the literal interpretation is greater and the pun more obvious. The examples of these puns exploiting metaphor reversal have been taken from films featuring the verbal comedian Groucho Marx (GM), who frequently used this type and other kinds of puns in his films. The terms internal and external metaphor, coined by Alm-Arvius (2003:78), have been used in order to distinguish between two different types of metaphorisations. Internal metaphor refers to metaphors with obvious internal collocational clashes and external metaphor refers to metaphors without such clashes, which can thus be given a literal as well as a figurative reading. However, this is not a clear-cut distinction and occasional overlapping between the two categories is common. Therefore, a continuum has been given which shows the overlapping category ‘more figurative external metaphors’. These are metaphors without collocational clashes, but with entrenched figurative meanings which make them metaphorical and not literal. GM does not only revert external metaphors; he also reverts internal metaphors although this category contains collocational clashes which should make a literal interpretation impossible. Internal metaphor puns tend to be more absurd than external metaphor puns due to the collocational clashes which make the literal interpretation less probable. Reverted external metaphors are referred to as REM and reverted internal metaphors as RIM. Most examples analysed are metaphorisations with idiom status with clearly preferred figurative meanings. Consequently, their figurative meanings are deeply entrenched and should not be altered. However, these figurative meanings are altered by GM in his punning; they are reverted and interpreted literally. This indicates that one of the few occasions when it is accepted or even possible to interpret a metaphorical idiom literally is in punning.

As questÃes que nos levaram à investigaÃÃo do tema foram: (i) Quais sÃo os mecanismos envolvidos na geraÃÃo do sentido metafÃrico/literal das expressÃes idiomÃticas (EIs) e suas desconstruÃÃes pictÃricas (DPs)? (ii) Qual à o papel da metÃfora/mesclagem conceptual na geraÃÃo do sentido metafÃrico/literal entre as duas modalidades (EI verbal e DP nÃo-verbal)? e (iii) Qual à o papel das projeÃÃes congruentes e nÃo congruentes de cada uma das modalidades na geraÃÃo do sentido metafÃrico/literal? Para responder a esses questionamentos tivemos como objetivo principal descrever a estrutura interna da rede de integraÃÃo conceptual dos mecanismos responsÃveis pela geraÃÃo do sentido metafÃrico/literal das EIs e suas DPs e como objetivos especÃficos: (i) descrever e propor um modelo que revele a arquitetura interna da rede de integraÃÃo conceptual envolvida nos processos de geraÃÃo do sentido entre as duas modalidades (verbal e nÃo-verbal), (ii) descrever como processos de figuratividade e/ou literalidade participam nas modalidades verbal e nÃo-verbal e interferem na geraÃÃo do significado e (iii) propor um modelo que revele a estrutura interna do percurso gerativo do sentido das EIS e suas DPs nas redes de integraÃÃo conceptual. (RP). Para composiÃÃo do corpus da pesquisa foram selecionadas as seguintes obras: (a) A vaca foi pro brejo â the cow went to the swamp (FERNANDES, 2001) e (b) Pequeno DicionÃrio de ExpressÃes IdiomÃticas (ZOCCHIO; BALARDIN, 1999). Da obra de Fernandes (2001) foram escolhidas as expressÃes (1) âo bom cabrito nÃo berraâ, (2) ânÃo ter papas na lÃnguaâ e (3) âsà falam abobrinhasâ; de Zocchio e Ballardin (1999), a expressÃo âengolir sapoâ. Para atingirmos nossos objetivos, tomamos como base os postulados da Teoria da IntegraÃÃo Conceptual (FAUCONNIER; TURNER, 2003) e da Teoria da MetÃfora Conceptual de Lakoff e Johnson (1980, 1999). A partir das anÃlises, o modelo projetado da estrutura interna das redes de integraÃÃo conceptual revelou que a inter-relaÃÃo entre EI e sua RP permite uma multiplicidade de projeÃÃes que participam na geraÃÃo do sentido. O modelo tambÃm permite ampliar as relaÃÃes conceptuais gerando diferentes mesclagens, de forma que a imagem em relaÃÃo à sua representaÃÃo verbal pode ser parcial ou totalmente congruente. O grau de (in)congruÃncia entre o literal e o idiomÃtico Ã, no continuum, decisivo para a determinaÃÃo do resultado mesclado. Foi possÃvel tornar evidente que hà uma estreita ligaÃÃo entre uma modalidade e a outra. Isso aponta para desvelar que a natureza do processamento da EI pode ser de base metafÃrica ou literal. Ainda com base nas anÃlises, o modelo de mesclagem proposto comprovou ser eficiente para a demonstraÃÃo da organizaÃÃo interna das redes na geraÃÃo do sentido, a partir da inter-relaÃÃo entre a representaÃÃo verbal e nÃo-verbal. Na estruturaÃÃo das redes entram em jogo as vÃrias projeÃÃes criativas e imaginativas, o que possibilita novas configuraÃÃes de sentido (re)construÃdo sucessivamente. / We had some questions that have driven our investigation: (i) What are the mechanisms that are involved in the metaphorical/literal meaning generation of the idiomatic expressions (IE) and its pictorial representation (PR)?, (ii) What is the role of the conceptual metaphor/blending in the metaphorical/literal meaning generation between the two modalities (verbal IE and non-verbal PR)? And (iii) What is the role of the congruent projections of each modality in the metaphorical/literal meaning generation? To answer these questions we had a main objective: describe the internal structure of the conceptual integration network of the mechanisms responsible for the metaphorical/literal meaning generation of the idioms and its PRs and some specific objectives: (i) to describe, by use of a model, the internal structure of conceptual integration network and of the mechanisms involved in the generation of meaning of IEs and their PRs; (ii) to describe the figurative and/or literal process that interferes in the meaning generation and (iii) propose a model that demonstrates the internal structure of the IE meaning generation and its PRs in the conceptual integration network.. The following works had been selected to compose the research corpus: (a) A vaca foi pro brejo â the cow went to the swamp (FERNANDES, 2001) and (b) Pequeno DicionÃrio de ExpressÃes IdiomÃticas (ZOCCHIO; BALARDIN, 1999). From the work by Fernandes (2001), the expressions (1) âo bom cabrito nÃo berraâ, (2) ânÃo ter papas na lÃnguaâ e (3) âsà falam abobrinhasâ were selected; from Zocchio and Balardin (1999), the IE âengolir sapoâ. In order to reach our objectives, we based our research on the postulates of the Theory of Conceptual Integration (FAUCONNIER; TURNER, 2003) and on Lakoff and Johnsonâs (1980, 1999) Theory of Conceptual Metaphor. With the analyses as a starting point, the designed model of the internal structure of conceptual integration networks revealed that the interrelation between the IE and its PR allows a multiplicity of projections which contribute to the generation of meaning. The model also allows the expansion of conceptual relationships, generating different blends, so that the image, in terms of its verbal representation, may be partially or totally congruent. The degree of (in)congruence between the literal and the idiomatic is, in a continuum, decisive for the determination of the blended result. It was possible to show that there is a close connection between one modality and the other. This suggests that the nature of the processing of an IE may have a metaphorical or literal basis. Still based on the analyses, our model of blends proved to be efficient to demonstrate the internal organization of the nets in the generation of meaning, from the interrelation between verbal and non-verbal representation. In the designing of the networks, the various creative and imaginative projections come into play, which allows for new configurations of meaning to be successively (re)constructed.

Submitted by Fabiano Vassallo (fabianovassallo2127@gmail.com) on 2017-05-15T18:29:58Z No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) RICCI_Adiel__O_processamento_psicolinguístico_da metáfora_um_estudo_experimental_no_PB.pdf: 2535918 bytes, checksum: 4c5a972843609c909a1ef4d2a6c087bc (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Josimara Dias Brumatti (bcgdigital@ndc.uff.br) on 2017-06-12T17:59:31Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) RICCI_Adiel__O_processamento_psicolinguístico_da metáfora_um_estudo_experimental_no_PB.pdf: 2535918 bytes, checksum: 4c5a972843609c909a1ef4d2a6c087bc (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-06-12T17:59:31Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) RICCI_Adiel__O_processamento_psicolinguístico_da metáfora_um_estudo_experimental_no_PB.pdf: 2535918 bytes, checksum: 4c5a972843609c909a1ef4d2a6c087bc (MD5) / Universidade Severino Sombra, Letras, Vassouras, RJ / Um estudo experimental, inédito no português brasileiro (PB), do processamento psicolinguístico de metáforas nominais (“X é um Y”, por exemplo: “Irene é um furacão”) foi conduzido com o objetivo de evidenciar, com base em tempos de leitura, o processamento direto de metáforas familiares, high-apt (bem construídas) e convencionalizadas, de acordo com o que preconizam Glucksberg e cols. (GLUCKSBERG & KEYSAR, 1990; GLUCKSBERG, 1998; GLUCKSBERG, 2003) no modelo teórico de Class-inclusion (ou de inclusão em categoria). Na primeira fase da pesquisa, realizaram-se dois norming studies (ou estudos normativos) para o ranqueamento de metáforas (por exemplo: “Algumas mulheres são furacões”) em relação à “Familiaridade”, “Aptness” (ou adequação) e “Convencionalidade”. Na segunda fase da pesquisa, realizou-se um experimento de leitura automonitorada (self-paced, non-cumulative, moving-window reading), recorrendo, para a composição dos estímulos, às metáforas que alcançaram ratings de “muito familiares”, “very high-apt’’ e “altamente convencionalizadas”. Oferecendo evidências do PB de processamento direto de metáforas – conforme preconiza o modelo Classinclusion de Glucksberg e cols. – não se observaram diferenças significativas entre os tempos de leitura das metáforas nominais, expressões equivalentes de significado literal e declarações literais de inclusão em classe, em contraposição aos achados de Janus & Bever (1985), que observaram tempos de leitura de metáforas novas significativamente maiores do que os de expressões literais, de acordo com as predições do Modelo Pragmático Padrão de processamento indireto, em três estágios (SEARLE, 1993 [1979]) / An experimental, unprecedented study in Brazilian Portuguese (BP), the psycholinguistic processing nominal metaphors ("X is a Y", e.g., "Irene is a hurricane") was conducted in order to demonstrate, based on reading times, the direct processing of familiar, high-apt (well-constructed) and conventionalized metaphors, according to what Glucksberg et al. (GLUCKSBERG & KEYSAR, 1990; GLUCKSBERG, 1998; GLUCKSBERG, 2003) defend in the theoretical model of Class-inclusion (or inclusion in category). In the first phase of the research, two norming studies were performed in order to rank metaphors (e.g., "Some women are hurricanes") regarding "Familiarity", "Aptness" and "Conventionality". In the second phase of the research, a self-monitored reading experiment (self-paced, noncumulative, moving-window reading) was carried out, using the metaphors previously rated as "very familiar", "very high-apt '' and "highly conventionalized" for the composition of the stimuli. Providing evidence of direct metaphors processing BP – not unlike the Class-inclusion model of Glucksberg et al. – there were no statistically significant differences between the reading times of nominal metaphors, of equivalent literal meaning expressions and of literal statements of class inclusion, in opposition to the findings of Janus & Bever (1985), who observed significantly higher reading times of novel metaphors rather than that of literal expressions, according to the predictions of the three-stage Standard Pragmatic model of indirect processing (SEARLE 1993 [1979])

The general topic of the thesis is the history of the Ordinary Language Philosophy. To be more precise, it deals with the critical arguments, which were raised against is. The thesis offers a short historical and sociological review of the Ordinary Language Philosophy. Critical analysis shows two things: 1) the main reason for the rejection was a different understanding of meaning (and consequences of such a understanding); 2) critics begged the question and already assumed the justification of these rejections in their arguments. The area of this criticism was: the paradigm case argument, the empirical nature of the statements of meaning produced by the Ordinary Language Philosophy, the structural elements of meaning and the political implications of the theory of meaning. The thesis criticizes the Ordinary Language Philosophy in those parts (and in such interpretations), where its understanding of meaning does not differ from the understanding of the critics and where they share common assumptions. On the other hand, the thesis argues for an interpretation, which avoids classical understanding of meaning in all its consequences. Finally, the thesis asks how the Ordinary Language Philosophy can be useful for contemporary debates.

Idioms are frequently used in any language and thereby it is important to investigate how these linguistic resources are understood, acquired and mastered. More studies need to be conducted, specially in the learning of a second language. Cooper (1999) examined the processing of idioms in English by L2 learners using the Think-aloud procedure (TAP). He found that a heuristic model consists of the numerous strategies used by these speakers to find the meaning of written idioms by exploring and try to find the meaning which is less familiar to them, compared to the native speakers knowledge and holistic or integrated approach. In the currrent work, realized in Sweden, the TAP was applied to compare the responses given by learners of Spanish as a second language and native speakers about common verbal idioms. The aim is to analyze the interpretation and comprehension of non-literal or figurative meaning of these expressions. As the result indicates, the Spanish idioms were less familiar to the L2 learners, but their figurative meaning was understood in 41% of the times, and including partial associations in 76% of the attempts using the TAP. The descriptions of these L2 Spanish speakers’ group varied notoriously: amid match and partial coincidences with figurative meaning, unusual images were referred and the literal meaning was presented in a few cases as part of the figurative. The heuristic and a kind of hybrid approach to the idiomatic meaning in the oral and semantic elaborations and interpretative strategies were confirmed. However, it was relatively easier to the L2 speakers to propose lexical definitions. With a more holistic processing and descriptions of meaning, the native speakers accessed the non-literal idioms’ meaning with a complete description in 85% of the cases, and including linked information in 98%, which confirmed that regional idioms could be particularly unknown. Some difficulties to give explicit information about concrete terms by members of the group of native speakers were identified. / Las locuciones son expresiones de uso común en el habla cotidiana y por ello es importante investigar cómo son comprendidas y adquiridas, tanto en el aprendizaje de lenguas maternas como en el de segundas lenguas. Cooper (1999) examinó cómo los hablantes de inglés como segunda lengua, usando el procedimiento Pensar en Voz Alta (PVA), describen el significado de locuciones presentadas por escrito. Él identificó que un modelo heurístico de procesamiento se conforma por numerosas estrategias con las cuales estos hablantes intentan encontrar y dar respuestas acertadas acerca del significado idiomático. El PVA se usó en este estudio, realizado en Suecia, para comparar las respuestas de aprendientes de español como segunda lengua y hablantes nativos, enfocando locuciones verbales de uso común en esa lengua. El propósito fue analizar las interpretaciones y comprensión de significado no literal o figurado de las secuencias convencionales presentadas. Los resultados muestran que para los hablantes de español como segunda lengua las locuciones eran poco familiares, pero acertaron en el 41% de sus intentos al describir significados coincidentes con el sentido figurado, y en 76% con asociaciones parciales de significado. Las respuestas de estos hablantes variaron notoriamente: entre aproximación al significado convencional proporcionaron imágenes inusuales y algunos significados literales como parte del figurado, confirmando un abordaje heurístico o indagatorio y cierta aproximación híbrida al conocimiento idiomático en la L2. Sin embargo, fue relativamente más fácil para estos participantes formular definiciones léxicas. El abordaje de los hablantes nativos fue en cambio más holístico o integrador, con la descripción completa de significados del sentido figurado en 85% de casos, y en 98% con asociación de información relacionada, lo que confirma que algunas expresiones pueden ser conocidas de distinta forma en regiones diferentes. En algunos casos hubo ciertas dificultades para exponer información explícita sobre términos concretos en este grupo de hablantes nativos.

Las locuciones son expresiones de uso común en el habla cotidiana y por ello es importante investigar cómo son comprendidas y adquiridas, tanto en el aprendizaje de lenguas maternas como en el de segundas lenguas. Cooper (1999) examinó cómo los hablantes de inglés como segunda lengua, usando el procedimiento Pensar en Voz Alta (PVA), describen el significado de locuciones presentadas por escrito. Él identificó que un modelo heurístico de procesamiento se conforma por numerosas estrategias con las cuales estos hablantes intentan encontrar y dar respuestas acertadas acerca del significado idiomático. El PVA se usó en este estudio, realizado en Suecia, para comparar las respuestas de aprendientes de español como segunda lengua y hablantes nativos, enfocando locuciones verbales de uso común en esa lengua. El propósito fue analizar las interpretaciones y comprensión de significado no literal o figurado de las secuencias convencionales presentadas. Los resultados muestran que para los hablantes de español como segunda lengua las locuciones eran poco familiares, pero acertaron en el 41% de sus intentos al describir significados coincidentes con el sentido figurado, y en 76% con asociaciones parciales de significado. Las respuestas de estos hablantes variaron notoriamente: entre aproximación al significado convencional proporcionaron imágenes inusuales y algunos significados literales como parte del figurado, confirmando un abordaje heurístico o indagatorio y cierta aproximación híbrida al conocimiento idiomático en la L2. Sin embargo, fue relativamente más fácil para estos participantes formular definiciones léxicas. El abordaje de los hablantes nativos fue en cambio más holístico o integrador, con la descripción completa de significados del sentido figurado en 85% de casos, y en 98% con asociación de información relacionada, lo que confirma que algunas expresiones pueden ser conocidas de distinta forma en regiones diferentes. En algunos casos hubo ciertas dificultades para exponer información explícita sobre términos concretos en este grupo de hablantes nativos. / Idioms are frequently used in any language and thereby it is important to investigate how these linguistic resources are understood, acquired and mastered. More studies need to be conducted, specially in the learning of a second language. Cooper (1999) examined the processing of idioms in English by L2 learners using the Think-aloud procedure (TAP). He found that a heuristic model consists of the numerous strategies used by these speakers to find the meaning of written idioms by exploring and try to find the meaning which is less familiar to them, compared to the native speakers knowledge and holistic or integrated approach. In the currrent work, realized in Sweden, the TAP was applied to compare the responses given by learners of Spanish as a second language and native speakers about common verbal idioms. The aim is to analyze the interpretation and comprehension of non-literal or figurative meaning of these expressions. As the result indicates, the Spanish idioms were less familiar to the L2 learners, but their figurative meaning was understood in 41% of the times, and including partial associations in 76% of the attempts using the TAP. The descriptions of these L2 Spanish speakers’ group varied notoriously: amid match and partial coincidences with figurative meaning, unusual images were referred and the literal meaning was presented in a few cases as part of the figurative. The heuristic and a kind of hybrid approach to the idiomatic meaning in the oral and semantic elaborations and interpretative strategies were confirmed. However, it was relatively easier to the L2 speakers to propose lexical definitions. With a more holistic processing and descriptions of meaning, the native speakers accessed the non-literal idioms’ meaning with a complete description in 85% of the cases, and including linked information in 98%, which confirmed that regional idioms could be particularly unknown. Some difficulties to give explicit information about concrete terms by members of the group of native speakers were identified.