This study indicates that communication skills and communication apprehension of English First Additional Language (EFAL) learners are important aspects in teaching and learning, as well as for academic performance. A learner‘s major hurdle to overcome in communication in a second language classroom is a fear of failure. Communication skills and communication apprehension are challenges teachers have to face in language classrooms. Communication barriers that may lead to fear, distress and poor performance should be identified at an early stage. Therefore, it is critical for teachers to know about the communication process, communication skills, and communication apprehension to design positive solutions and teaching strategies to assist learners to overcome fear of communication, especially in the area of second and additional languages. A sample of 779 male and female learners in the secondary phase in Kannaland District, Western Cape participated in the study. For this non-experimental quantitative study, data were gathered using two questionnaires, Communication Skills Scale, and the Personal Report Communication Apprehension questionnaire. To explore the relationship between communication skills, communication apprehension and academic achievement, the first and second term EFAL marks of grades 7-9 learners were used. The data were presented as descriptive statistics, factor analysis, reliability analysis, correlations and comparisons. Results distinguished no differences between males, females, or grades. Findings were discussed with regard to communication skills and the academic achievement, as well as communication apprehension and academic achievement of the learners. Results indicate that there is no significant relationship between communication skills and academic achievement. Nevertheless, distinct relationships between communication skills and communication apprehension (group work, meetings and public speaking) were established and discussed. Communication apprehension (group work, conversations and in the classroom) and academic achievement presented clear relationships that were reported in detail. The factors identified may have a negative impact on learners‘ academic achievement in EFAL. Insight generated by the research in Kannaland District, Western Cape will help to develop an understanding of the situations that affect the degree of communication apprehension of secondary phase EFAL learners. It will allow for a better understanding of the influence of communication skills and could assist teachers to understand EFAL learners‘ fear, distress or ability to communicate. / MEd (Curriculum Development), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

Doctor of Philosophy / Curriculum and Instruction Programs / Marjorie R. Hancock / This qualitative case study sought to gain deeper understanding of the role the writing process approach played in developing the writing ability of five fifth grade Saudi Arabian students when writing in English as a second language. The study extended for five months in a Midwest elementary school serving a large ESL population. Participants of this study included four ESL teachers and five Saudi ESL students, four females and one male. Two main queries guided this study: 1) the roles of ESL teachers when using the writing process approach in teaching writing in English as a second language to five fifth grade Saudi Arabian ESL students; and 2) the role of the writing process approach in the writing development of five fifth grade Saudi Arabian ESL students. The researcher documented data through four sources: classroom observation, interviews with ESL teacher and ESL students, student think-aloud protocols, and student writing samples. The data analysis of the ESL teachers revealed strong advocacy of utilizing the writing process as an effective method to improve ESL Saudi Arabian students’ writing ability. They were successful in employing the writing process approach regardless of their students’ English language proficiency level, using numerous writing strategies including collaborative writing activities, games, varying speed and voice tone, interest in students’ cultures and languages, and social interaction with the students. The data analysis of the study’s student focus revealed that students writing was not a one step process, yet an ongoing cycle in which they prewrite, plan, draft, pause, read, revise, edit, and publish. Students demonstrated different attitudes and behaviors toward writing throughout this study. Four of the students valued their second language (L2); one, however, found English difficult and confusing. Some of the students’ writing sample scores, determined by the Six Traits Writing Rubric, differed by the end of the study while others’ remained the same. This study provided rich data to better understand the importance of teachers utilizing effective writing process techniques and the impact of the writing process approach on Saudi Arabian students learning to write in English in an American school setting.

This research investigated the possible correlation between English proficiency and academic success in Internal Auditing 1 of learners registered at the Vaal Triangle Technikon. Acquisition of a Second language was investigated with reference to Additive and Subtractive bilingualism, Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills, and Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency. Factors that influence the acquisition of a L2 were also discussed. Factors that influence learning through a Second language, problems experienced by learners learning through a Second language and the coping mechanisms they use were investigated. The specific language situation in South African education was explained starting with a short historical background of English in South African schools. General problems experienced at schools, language problems experienced at schools, the language proficiency of teachers and how they cope with the language problems were discussed. Language problems experienced by the learners and its effect on higher education were also investigated. A questionnaire was used to gather information regarding respondents' school history, First language, experiences with English as a subject at school, experiences of English as language of instruction, and their views on Internal Auditing 1 as a subject. Respondents' English proficiency was determined through three instruments, namely Grade 12 English Second language results, an English proficiency test and an English writing performance test. There is a discrepancy between tile respondents' own perception of their English proficiency and their English proficiency as reflected by their Grade 12 English Second language results, the proficiency test and the writing performance test. While respondents felt that their English proficiency is average or above average, the tests indicated that their English proficiency is very low. Despite the respondents' very tow levels of English proficiency they reported that they did not find the English used in different situations relating to Internal Auditing 1 difficult and no significant correlation could be determined between their English proficiency levels and their academic success in Internal Auditing 1. / Psychology of Education / M. Ed. (Psychology of Education)

Contemporary education literature indicates that motivation can be a deciding factor in a student’s second language acquisition experience. The desire to learn more about the motivation of my own students in a second language learning setting sparked the onset of action research that led me to a better understanding of my subject area, myself as a professional, and most importantly, my students. My initial round of inquiry was a basic one from which the other branches of research evolved: finding out what students felt was motivational about my German class. Research, in each round, took place both through examining existing literature as well as through classroom based research focused on my students. The first round of action research led to the next research area pertinent to understanding and harnessing the power of motivation in my classroom: Using theory to re-shape practical classroom approaches in order to capitalize on motivational factors identified by students. As this round of action research took form, the need for further research became apparent: In order to truly understand what was happening in my German classroom concerning intrinsic student motivation, it was necessary to look more closely at why students were motivated by the factors they had indicated. As a classroom teacher, my initial goal was to optimize factors that I, as the classroom teacher, can control in order to make German language learning as motivational for students as possible. As Dörnyei says, (Dörnyei 2001 a, p. 2): “…99 percent of language learners who really want to learn a foreign language (i.e. who are really motivated) will be able to master a reasonable working knowledge of it as a minimum, regardless of their language aptitude.” Action research was the way for me to better understand a small slice of students’ motivational intricacies concerning German language learning - those which are based in my classroom itself and are under my control to influence. / Curriculum and Instructional Studies

This doctoral dissertation is an empirical qualitative research study on the emergence of learnables in classrooms of Swedish as a second language. It adopts a dialogical and praxeological approach, and analysis is based on video recorded teacher-student interactivities in classrooms. Learnables are taken to be linguistic items or constructs that are displayed as unknown by students, or problematized by students or teachers, and therefore oriented to as explainable, remediable, or improvable. Learnables are introduced in planned or less planned classroom activities, either in passing, while continuing the current main activity, or in sidesequences. In these activities, teachers and students not only talk, but also use other embodied resources (e.g. pointing) or available artifacts (e.g. worksheets) to highlight linguistic learnables. Teachers and students use these resources for achieving and maintaining intersubjectivity as well as contributing learnables to the interactivities. Through manifest embodied practices, abstract linguistic learnables become objectified, and knowledge about them gets organized in and through joint co-operative activities. / Denna avhandling är en empirisk, kvalitativ studie om uppkomsten av s.k. ”learnables” i svenska som andraspråksutbildning. Studien antar ett dialogiskt och praxeologiskt perspektiv, och analysen baseras på video-inspelade lärare-elevinteraktiviteter i klassrummet. ”Learnables” utgörs av språkliga objekt eller konstruktioner, som hanteras som obekanta av elever, eller som problematiseras av elever eller lärare, och därför orienteras emot som objekt som kan förklaras, korrigeras eller förbättras. ”Learnables” kan uppstå i planerade eller mindre planerade klarssrumsaktiviteter, antingen i förbigående, samtidigt som huvudaktiviteten fortsätter utan avbrott, eller i sidosekvenser. I dessa aktiviteter använder lärare och elever inte bara talspråk, utan även andra kroppsliga resurser (t.ex. pekningar) eller tillgängliga artefakter (t.ex. papper) för att fokusera på språkliga ”learnables”. Lärare och elever använder dessa medel för att uppnå och bibehålla intersubjektivitet, samt för att bidra med ”learnables” till interaktiviteterna. Genom konkreta kroppsliga metoder blir abstrakta, språkliga ”learnables” objektifierade och kunskapen om dem organiseras i och genom deltagarnas koordinerade handlingar.

Research has shown that the Swedish results of education have fallen continuously since 2000. It has been shown that there are differences in performance between native students and immigrant students. National Centre for “Swedish as a second language” indicates that Swedish schools fail to give all students an equal and high quality education. Then Swedish as a second language education can be organized in two different ways a wonder arise if it can depend on how teachers´ conditions in teaching reveals in these. This study aims to lighten primary school teachers' views on the opportunities and difficulties in second language teaching, which can be organized in two different ways, "separate" and "within the framework of the class". The research questions of the study are, 1) What requirements do teachers perceive that the curriculum for “Swedish as a second language” requires? What opportunities and difficulties can be seen here? 2) What trade-offs are made in the planning of teaching and how are these applied in the teaching of “Swedish as a second language”? What opportunities and difficulties can be seen here? 3) What conditions for scaffolding and interaction do teachers create in teaching "Swedish as a second language? What opportunities and difficulties can be seen here? By using Shulmans theory PCK (Pedagogical Content Knowledge) it manages to visualize teacher language didactic choices within the subject “Swedish as a second language”. Through a qualitative study based on interviews and observations, the result shows that both teachers reason about a range of language didactic choices, opportunities and solutions, but these could not always be transformed and seen in practice. During the observations, it became clear that the “Swedish as a second language” teaching structural conditions both enabling and impeding teachers to conduct effective teaching. In this case, separate teaching came to be ineffective because they did not have a language development perspectives in school, thereby the subject was stigmatized.

Le but de cette thèse est d'étudier les corrélats comportementaux et neuronaux du transfert inter-linguistique (TIL) dans l'apprentissage d’une langue seconde (L2). Compte tenu de nos connaissances sur l'influence de la distance linguistique sur le TIL (Paradis, 1987, 2004; Odlin, 1989, 2004, 2005; Gollan, 2005; Ringbom, 2007), nous avons examiné l'effet de facilitation de la similarité phonologique à l’aide de la résonance magnétique fonctionnelle entre des langues linguistiquement proches (espagnol-français) et des langues linguistiquement éloignées (persan-français). L'étude I rapporte les résultats obtenus pour des langues linguistiquement proches (espagnol-français), alors que l'étude II porte sur des langues linguistiquement éloignées (persan-français). Puis, les changements de connectivité fonctionnelle dans le réseau langagier (Price, 2010) et dans le réseau de contrôle supplémentaire impliqué dans le traitement d’une langue seconde (Abutalebi & Green, 2007) lors de l’apprentissage d’une langue linguistiquement éloignée (persan-français) sont rapportés dans l’étude III. Les résultats des analyses d’IRMF suivant le modèle linéaire général chez les bilingues de langues linguistiquement proches (français-espagnol) montrent que le traitement des mots phonologiquement similaires dans les deux langues (cognates et clangs) compte sur un réseau neuronal partagé par la langue maternelle (L1) et la L2, tandis que le traitement des mots phonologiquement éloignés (non-clang-non-cognates) active des structures impliquées dans le traitement de la mémoire de travail et d'attention. Toutefois, chez les personnes bilingues de L1-L2 linguistiquement éloignées (français-persan), même les mots phonologiquement similaires à travers les langues (cognates et clangs) activent des régions connues pour être impliquées dans l'attention et le contrôle cognitif. Par ailleurs, les mots phonologiquement éloignés (non-clang-non-cognates) activent des régions usuellement associées à la mémoire de travail et aux fonctions exécutives. Ainsi, le facteur de distance inter-linguistique entre L1 et L2 module la charge cognitive sur la base du degré de similarité phonologiques entres les items en L1 et L2. Des structures soutenant les processus impliqués dans le traitement exécutif sont recrutées afin de compenser pour des demandes cognitives. Lorsque la compétence linguistique en L2 augmente et que les tâches linguistiques exigent ainsi moins d’effort, la demande pour les ressources cognitives diminue. Tel que déjà rapporté (Majerus, et al, 2008; Prat, et al, 2007; Veroude, et al, 2010; Dodel, et al, 2005; Coynel, et al ., 2009), les résultats des analyses de connectivité fonctionnelle montrent qu’après l’entraînement la valeur d'intégration (connectivité fonctionnelle) diminue puisqu’il y a moins de circulation du flux d'information. Les résultats de cette recherche contribuent à une meilleure compréhension des aspects neurocognitifs et de plasticité cérébrale du TIL ainsi que l'impact de la distance linguistique dans l'apprentissage des langues. Ces résultats ont des implications dans les stratégies d'apprentissage d’une L2, les méthodes d’enseignement d’une L2 ainsi que le développement d'approches thérapeutiques chez des patients bilingues qui souffrent de troubles langagiers. / The purpose of this thesis was to study the behavioral and neural correlates of Cross-linguistic Transfer effects (CLT) at the word level, in second language learning. Moreover, given that language distance has an impact on CLT, (Paradis, 1987, 2004, Odlin, 1989, 2004, 2005, Gollan, 2005, Ringbom, 2007), two distinct language pairs were examined: Close language pairs (Spanish-French) and distant language pairs (Persian-French). This thesis comprises three studies. In study I, Spanish speakers and in study II Persian speakers were trained for lexical learning until consolidation level. Cognates (phonologically and semantically similar words), Clangs (phonologically similar words with different meanings), and Non-cognate-non-clangs (semantically similar words), were presented in a picture naming task. Accuracy rates and response times as well as event-related fMRI BOLD responses to each word category were measured. Simple and direct contrasts with phonologically similar and phonologically distant words were performed. Thus, Study I reports the results of close languages (Spanish-French) and Study II, reports the results of distant languages (Persian-French). The neurocognitive processing of language learning was further investigated in terms of networks using functional connectivity analysis in distant languages (Persian-French) and the results are reported in Study III. The Results with the General Linear Model analysis show that with close language pairs (French-Spanish), the processing of phonologically similar words (cognates and clangs) relies upon a shared L1-L2 language specific neural areas, whereas processing of phonologically distant words (non-clang-non-cognates), activates L1 language processing areas, but also relies upon working memory, attentional, and processing structures. However, with distant language pairs (French-Persian), even phonologically similar words (cognates and clangs) activate areas known to be involved in attentional processing and cognitive control. Moreover, phonologically distant words (non-clang-non-cognates) also activate areas involved in working memory and executive function processing structures. Thus, the factor of L1-L2 cross-linguistic distance appears to modulate the executive load imposed to the system, on the basis of the degree of phonological overlap between L1-L2 items; thus in order to compensate for more effortful processing demands, the system recruits executive function supporting structures. The results of the connectivity analysis show that, in line with literature (Majerus, et al., 2008; Prat, et al., 2007; Veroude, et al., 2010; Dodel, et al., 2005; Coynel, et al., 2009), when the language proficiency is low, there is enhanced functional connectivity between and within language specific and other cognitive processing (working memory, attentional and cognitive control) networks. However, as proficiency increases, integration values (functional connectivity) decrease. This reflects that language tasks become less effortful and demand less cognitive resources. The results of this dissertation contribute to a better understanding of CLT effects on L2 learning, both in regards to different word types and L1-L2 language distance. These results have implications with regards to L2 learning and teaching strategies and approaches as well as with regards to the development of data-driven therapy approaches in the case of language break down in bilingual population.

This study investigates when and why teachers use code-switching as a method as well as teachers’ approach to the use of code-switching as a language strategy. I’ve seen that pupils in Swedish schools have a problem with oral communication and often use code-switching as a strategy. Earlier research has been done on the subject, but most has been done with observations of pupils or teachers. There is also a lack of research done in Swedish schools. It therefore felt necessary to carry out a study interviewing teachers about their approach to the strategy and how they use it. The informants of the study are five teachers who teach English in grades 4-6 in four Swedish schools. Interviews as a qualitative method were used to be able to answer the research questions. The results show that four of the informants use code-switching quite frequently. It shows five different reasons why they code-switch and that they mostly have a positive approach to the strategy, while they see the negative aspects and wish they could use the English language more in class. One of the informants has got a negative approach to the subject and only used codeswitching when necessary. The conclusion shows that all informants think that code-switching helps pupils that have a difficulty with the language of some sort. / Syftet med denna studie var att undersöka när och varför lärare använder kodväxling som metod och även lärares inställning till kodväxling som språkstrategi. Jag har sett att elever i svenska skolor har svårigheter med den muntliga kommunikationen och ofta använder kodväxling som strategi. Tidigare studier har utförts på ämnet men de flesta har varit observationer av elever och lärare. Det råder också brist på forskning utförd i Sverige. Därför kändes det nödvändigt att utföra en studie där lärare intervjuas kring deras inställning till och användande av strategin. Studien genomfördes på fem lärare som undervisar i engelska i årskurs 4–6 på fyra svenska skolor. Intervju som kvalitativ metod användes för att kunna svara på forskningsfrågorna. Resultaten visar att fyra av informanterna använder kodväxling ofta. De visar fem olika anledningar till att de kodväxlar och att de mestadels har en positiv inställning till strategin, samtidigt som de ser negativa aspekter och önskar att de använde engelskan mer i undervisningen. En informant har en negativ inställning till strategin och använder den bara när det är nödvändigt. Slutsatsen visar att alla informanter tycker att kodväxling är bra när det kommer till elever som har någon svårighet med språket.

Η παρούσα έρευνα συνιστά μια κριτική βιβλιογραφική επισκόπηση της Διγλωσσίας και της Δίγλωσσης Εκπαίδευσης έτσι ώστε να καταφανούν μέσω μιας συστηματικής περιγραφικής αξιολόγησης οι διεπιστημονικές θεωρήσεις αυτού του ερευνητικού πεδίου. Μια μεθοδολογική ποιοτική καταγραφή εκατό αγγλικών άρθρων αποτελεί μια βάση δεδομένων η κριτική παρουσίαση και ερμηνεία της οποίας καταδεικνύει εκείνους τους κοινωνικο-πολιτισμικούς και γνωστικούς παράγοντες που αλληλεπιδρούν έτσι ώστε το δίγλωσσο υποκείμενο έρευνας, ο δίγλωσσος μαθητής, να κατασκευάσει νόημα για έναν κόσμο που ως συνεχές υπόκειται σε μια ποικιλία κοινωνικών αλλαγών. / This paper constist a multifactorial research on Bilingualism and Bilingual Education. A Critical Review of an electronical basis of data, a hundrend of English articles, demonsrate the qualitive aspects of a multicultural phenomenon which is characterized by the notion of the interdisciplinarity. The interaction between cognitive and sociocultural factors by which bilingual student try to construct meaning for a world that as a continuum subject to a variety of social changes.

Le but de cette thèse est d'étudier les corrélats comportementaux et neuronaux du transfert inter-linguistique (TIL) dans l'apprentissage d’une langue seconde (L2). Compte tenu de nos connaissances sur l'influence de la distance linguistique sur le TIL (Paradis, 1987, 2004; Odlin, 1989, 2004, 2005; Gollan, 2005; Ringbom, 2007), nous avons examiné l'effet de facilitation de la similarité phonologique à l’aide de la résonance magnétique fonctionnelle entre des langues linguistiquement proches (espagnol-français) et des langues linguistiquement éloignées (persan-français). L'étude I rapporte les résultats obtenus pour des langues linguistiquement proches (espagnol-français), alors que l'étude II porte sur des langues linguistiquement éloignées (persan-français). Puis, les changements de connectivité fonctionnelle dans le réseau langagier (Price, 2010) et dans le réseau de contrôle supplémentaire impliqué dans le traitement d’une langue seconde (Abutalebi & Green, 2007) lors de l’apprentissage d’une langue linguistiquement éloignée (persan-français) sont rapportés dans l’étude III. Les résultats des analyses d’IRMF suivant le modèle linéaire général chez les bilingues de langues linguistiquement proches (français-espagnol) montrent que le traitement des mots phonologiquement similaires dans les deux langues (cognates et clangs) compte sur un réseau neuronal partagé par la langue maternelle (L1) et la L2, tandis que le traitement des mots phonologiquement éloignés (non-clang-non-cognates) active des structures impliquées dans le traitement de la mémoire de travail et d'attention. Toutefois, chez les personnes bilingues de L1-L2 linguistiquement éloignées (français-persan), même les mots phonologiquement similaires à travers les langues (cognates et clangs) activent des régions connues pour être impliquées dans l'attention et le contrôle cognitif. Par ailleurs, les mots phonologiquement éloignés (non-clang-non-cognates) activent des régions usuellement associées à la mémoire de travail et aux fonctions exécutives. Ainsi, le facteur de distance inter-linguistique entre L1 et L2 module la charge cognitive sur la base du degré de similarité phonologiques entres les items en L1 et L2. Des structures soutenant les processus impliqués dans le traitement exécutif sont recrutées afin de compenser pour des demandes cognitives. Lorsque la compétence linguistique en L2 augmente et que les tâches linguistiques exigent ainsi moins d’effort, la demande pour les ressources cognitives diminue. Tel que déjà rapporté (Majerus, et al, 2008; Prat, et al, 2007; Veroude, et al, 2010; Dodel, et al, 2005; Coynel, et al ., 2009), les résultats des analyses de connectivité fonctionnelle montrent qu’après l’entraînement la valeur d'intégration (connectivité fonctionnelle) diminue puisqu’il y a moins de circulation du flux d'information. Les résultats de cette recherche contribuent à une meilleure compréhension des aspects neurocognitifs et de plasticité cérébrale du TIL ainsi que l'impact de la distance linguistique dans l'apprentissage des langues. Ces résultats ont des implications dans les stratégies d'apprentissage d’une L2, les méthodes d’enseignement d’une L2 ainsi que le développement d'approches thérapeutiques chez des patients bilingues qui souffrent de troubles langagiers. / The purpose of this thesis was to study the behavioral and neural correlates of Cross-linguistic Transfer effects (CLT) at the word level, in second language learning. Moreover, given that language distance has an impact on CLT, (Paradis, 1987, 2004, Odlin, 1989, 2004, 2005, Gollan, 2005, Ringbom, 2007), two distinct language pairs were examined: Close language pairs (Spanish-French) and distant language pairs (Persian-French). This thesis comprises three studies. In study I, Spanish speakers and in study II Persian speakers were trained for lexical learning until consolidation level. Cognates (phonologically and semantically similar words), Clangs (phonologically similar words with different meanings), and Non-cognate-non-clangs (semantically similar words), were presented in a picture naming task. Accuracy rates and response times as well as event-related fMRI BOLD responses to each word category were measured. Simple and direct contrasts with phonologically similar and phonologically distant words were performed. Thus, Study I reports the results of close languages (Spanish-French) and Study II, reports the results of distant languages (Persian-French). The neurocognitive processing of language learning was further investigated in terms of networks using functional connectivity analysis in distant languages (Persian-French) and the results are reported in Study III. The Results with the General Linear Model analysis show that with close language pairs (French-Spanish), the processing of phonologically similar words (cognates and clangs) relies upon a shared L1-L2 language specific neural areas, whereas processing of phonologically distant words (non-clang-non-cognates), activates L1 language processing areas, but also relies upon working memory, attentional, and processing structures. However, with distant language pairs (French-Persian), even phonologically similar words (cognates and clangs) activate areas known to be involved in attentional processing and cognitive control. Moreover, phonologically distant words (non-clang-non-cognates) also activate areas involved in working memory and executive function processing structures. Thus, the factor of L1-L2 cross-linguistic distance appears to modulate the executive load imposed to the system, on the basis of the degree of phonological overlap between L1-L2 items; thus in order to compensate for more effortful processing demands, the system recruits executive function supporting structures. The results of the connectivity analysis show that, in line with literature (Majerus, et al., 2008; Prat, et al., 2007; Veroude, et al., 2010; Dodel, et al., 2005; Coynel, et al., 2009), when the language proficiency is low, there is enhanced functional connectivity between and within language specific and other cognitive processing (working memory, attentional and cognitive control) networks. However, as proficiency increases, integration values (functional connectivity) decrease. This reflects that language tasks become less effortful and demand less cognitive resources. The results of this dissertation contribute to a better understanding of CLT effects on L2 learning, both in regards to different word types and L1-L2 language distance. These results have implications with regards to L2 learning and teaching strategies and approaches as well as with regards to the development of data-driven therapy approaches in the case of language break down in bilingual population.