The present study was designed to obtain a sexual self-discrepancy score and to examine if it correlates with other variables that are linked with self-discrepancy theory, such as anxiety, depression, self-acceptance, and other-acceptance (homonegativity). We developed a measure based on self-discrepancy theory that theoretically assessed a participant's level of discrepancy between sexual beliefs and practices. The questions on sexual beliefs were based on the "ideal/ought" dimensions of self-discrepancy theory, and the questions on sexual practices were based on the "actual" self. There were less than 10 participants of the 294 respondents who reported sizeable discrepancies between their sexual attitudes and actual behaviors. This was problematic in light of the original research hypothesis, so a decision was made to treat the present study as exploratory in nature and examine potential correlations between beliefs, behaviors, and the study variables, as well as examine potential gender differences in beliefs and behaviors. Using the available data, I elected to regress the study variables on the two constructs that were pivotal to this study: sexual beliefs and sexual behaviors. Taken together, the study variables significantly predicted sexual beliefs. The individual variables that contributed significantly to the prediction of sexual beliefs were (in order of magnitude): religiosity, attitudes toward gays and lesbians, and self-esteem. Higher levels of religiosity, prejudice toward gays and lesbians, and low self-esteem were associated with limited acceptance of sexual activity. Age, self-acceptance, and symptoms of maladjustment were not associated significantly with sexual attitudes.

Potential influences from using sexually explicit Internet material (SEIM) are controversial, however, the underlying psychological mechanism(s), which potentially can explain these found associations with SEIM consumption, have not been well studied. In the present research, I examine the relationship between SEIM consumption and subjective wellbeing (i.e., sexual and general wellbeing). In particular, I address the circumstances under which the consumption of SEIM is negative for wellbeing by assessing an ideal-actual sexual discrepancy in the context of intimate relationships. I drew on perspectives from self-discrepancy theory to explore whether SEIM consumption generates disparities between ideal and actual sexual experiences, which then may influence consumers’ sexual and general wellbeing. I expected this hypothesized ideal-actual sexual discrepancy to function as one of many underlying psychological mechanisms to explain SEIM’s negative impacts on various types of subjective sexual wellbeing (SSW). I also expected that via SSW, the discrepancy would also explain the ambiguous relationships between SEIM consumption and subjective general wellbeing (SGW) found in the past. That is, I predicted a serial mediation model with sexual self-discrepancy mediating the relationship between SEIM consumption and SSW, and SSW mediating the relationship between sexual self-discrepancy and SGW. Two studies together demonstrated the general progress from consuming SEIM to the evaluation of self-perceived wellbeing under the condition of evaluating sexual experiences with intimate partner(s). In Study 1, the data-driven gender specific sexual preference highlighted the need of model testing separately for men and women because of the potential difference in experiencing the negative impacts from consuming SEIM through the different progress of formation of ideal sex scripts influence by pornographic sex, and generation of an I-A sexual discrepancy in men and women. Results of Study 2 from male SEIM consumers further supported the hypothesized mediation role of I-A sexual discrepancy and SSW (i.e., sexual esteem and sexual satisfaction) in understanding the relationships between SEIM consumption and wellbeing. Overall, the present research illustrated the consumption of SEIM can shape one’s sexual preferences of pornographic sex and generate unrealistic expectations of pornographic sexual experiences with intimate partner(s). Hence, the experience of I-A sexual discrepancy from unachievable ideal sex is a key factor in identifying SEIM’s negative impacts on wellbeing. Moreover, parsimonious serial mediation paths through I-A sexual discrepancy and SSW also demonstrated the relationship between SEIM consumption, SSW, and SGW in one model. This finding indicates SSW works as an important indicator of ones’ SGW. The present research provides a theoretical explanation to understand the impact of consuming SEIM on wellbeing and implicates the importance exploring different types of sexual discrepancy associated with SEIM consumption and ways to mitigate the experienced I-A sexual discrepancy in intimate relationships.

Higgins (1987) argued that perceived discrepancies between actual-self and ideal-self increase vulnerability to depression. Ogilvie (1987) argued that discrepancies between actual-self and undesired-self are more powerful determinants of depression. To test these claims, and to assess the effects of mood on reported discrepancies, 190 psychology undergraduates completed measures of their actual, ideal, and undesired selves, along with measures of depression (Depression Adjective Checklist and Beck Depression Inventory) and depression proneness (Depression Proneness Rating Scale). Approximately 3 weeks later, 147 of these participants were assigned to either a positive, negative, or no mood induction procedure, and again completed measures of actual, ideal, and undesired selves. Actual-ideal discrepancies were associated with current depression (' r' =.19, 'p' =.008) and with depression proneness ('r' =.28, 'p' =.001). More importantly, the relationship between actual-ideal discrepancies and depression proneness was, to some extent, independent of current mood, as measured by the DACL (partial ' r' =.19, 'p' =.008). <p>Nevertheless, induced moods also affected the reporting of actual-ideal discrepancies, with negative mood induction increasing discrepancy scores and positive mood induction decreasing discrepancy scores (<math> <f> <g>b</g></f> </math> =.49, 'p' <.0005). The above results are qualified by finding that when induced into a negative mood, high depression-prone participants (those with a history of depression) showed greater increases in actual-ideal discrepancies than low depression-prone participants, suggesting that self-discrepancies are cognitive structures that can be made accessible (primed) by mood. Lastly, no support was found for Ogilvie's claim that actual-undesired self discrepancies can be more powerful determinants of depressive vulnerability than actual-ideal self-discrepancies.

The goal of this research is to better understand the gap between the consumer's actual self image versus their perceived ideal image; in which, could help an online retail company to respond more effectively and provide a better service to its target customer with an added goal of reducing the rate of returns. A two-phased mixed methods approach was applied to this research to test for participants perceived and actual ideas of themselves, as well as their attitudes towards ideals. The first phase consisted of manual measurements taken and recorded, following a semi-structured interviewed. The second phase consisted of a 3D scan (digital measurements) taken and recorded followed by a four question survey comprising of three Likert questions, and one open ended question, concluding with researcher observations noted. The results showed that while the participants were mostly congruent with regards to size, they were mostly incongruent with regards to shape, and had zero congruence between the actual and the ideal self. All participants also experienced varying levels of fit issues with several areas mentioned, though pants/bottoms being the number one fit struggle. All participants expressed interested in the 3D scanning technology, felt it was easy to use, but there was a lack of continuity between participant self-reported survey answers, and their verbal answers as well as research observations.

Majority of millennials are daily users of Instagram and in conjunction with previous studies on Instagram displaying negative effects on psychological well-being, how individuals perceive their identity in relation to their Instagram use is interesting as it could be a part of how their psychological wellbeing is affected through use. Most previous research on Instagram and psychological well-being are general and based on quantitative methods. Descriptive findings on how individuals relate to their Instagram in terms of image or identity is not yet explored. The research question of this paper is therefore to investigate if there exists a perceived ideal image on Instagram and if individuals separate their Instagram image from their perceived real identities. Semi-structured interviews with 11 participants categorized through thematic analysis indicate a perceived ideal image on Instagram exists, and majority of participants cannot separate their Instagram image from their perceived real identity. It is assumed through findings that the level of awareness when applying one’s image or identity during Instagram use could indicate how risky it is for individuals to be affected negatively on their psychological well-being during usage. Increasing awareness of how one identify him- or herself based on his or her image or perceived real self could potentially decrease the risk of negative social comparison and self-discrepancy in interaction with one’s Instagram use. Findings showed there exists a perceived ideal image on Instagram while there is no coherent perception among participants in how they separate their perceived image from their perceived real identity. Future research could investigate whether this ’identity incongruence’ while using Instagram is part of a new way of constructing one’ identity in a world where virtual and real no longer has clear borders. / Majoriteten av Millennials är dagliga användare av Instagram och i kombination med tidigare studier om Instagram som tyder på negativa effekter på det psykosociala välmåendet - är hur individer upplever deras identitet i relation till deras Instagram-användande är intressant att undersöka, då det kan vara del av hur deras psykosociala välmående påverkas genom användning. Större delen av tidigare studier om Instagram och psykosocialt välmående är generell i naturen och baserat på kvantitativa metoder. Detaljerade resultat av hur individer relaterar till deras Instagram i form av image eller identitet är ännu inte undersökt. Frågeställningen är därför att undersöka om en upplevd idealisk image existerar på Instagram och om individer separerar deras Instagram image från deras upplevda riktiga identitet. Semi-strukturerade intervjuer med elva medverkande, kategoriserade genom tematisk analys, indikerar på att en upplevd idealisk image på Instagram existerar samt att majoriteten av dem medverkande inte kan skilja deras Instagram image från deras upplevda riktiga identitet. Det är antaget genom resultatet att nivån av medvetenhet man har i appliceringen av ens image eller identitet under användningen av Instagram kan indikera hur riskfyllt det är för individer att bli negativt påverkade psykosocialt under deras användning. Genom ökat medvetande av hur man identifierar sig själv baserat på sin image eller upplevda riktiga jag skulle risken för negativ social jämförelse och själv-diskrepans potentiellt minska i interaktion med ens Instagram-användande. Resultaten visar att en upplevd idealisk image på Instagram existerar samtidigt som en sammanhängande uppfattning av hur de medverkande separerar deras upplevda image från deras upplevda riktiga identitet inte existerar. Framtida studier kan undersöka närmare om denna ’identitets-inkongruens’ som uppstår under Instagram-användande är ett nytt sätt att skapa sin identitet på i en värld där det virtuella och det riktiga inte längre har tydliga gränser.

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本研究的主要目的在試圖提出一個架構，說明臺灣升大學重考生的情緒困擾問題，並描述出在此問題上，社會教化內容可能扮演的角色。經由文獻探討自我信念與情緒困擾間的關連，以及社會文化對個人情緒困擾的可能影響方式，研究者提出了「情緒困擾之整合性概念架構」作為說明重考生情緒困擾問題的起點，此架構主張：覺察自我落差導致了人們的情緒痛苦，而社會價值觀念不但形塑了人們的外在評價壓力，社會教化的內容也會經由影響個人的自我信念（含導引自我標準、預期自我信念及實際自我信念），對人們的情緒與行為產生重要的影響。 本研究的主要研究對象為：台北市某著名升大學補習班的197位重考生，其中121位為高中升大學重考生，其餘76位為高職升大學重考生。研究的工具除了Rosenberg自尊量表（RSE）、貝氏憂鬱量表（BDI）以及症狀檢核表焦慮分量表（SCL-A）外，還包括自行編製的「自我期許問卷」（可得到受測者所填寫的導引自我標準，以及他在這些標準上自評的各項自我落差量及落差覺察頻率），以及課業自我落差評量。 實徵研究的方法和結果可分為幾個部分，分別說明臺灣升大學重考生情緒困擾問題的不同面向： (一) 在情緒困擾相關評量上，對重考生及其他同齡學生（高三學生和大一學生）的狀況進行調查與比較，以巨觀描繪出臺灣升大學重考生的情緒困擾問題。研究結果發現：重考生較其他同齡學生具有更高的憂鬱和焦慮，而在自我落差評量方面，他們具有較高的自我落差覺察頻率，以及較大的課業自我落差量。 (二) 以大學生及重考生樣本，實徵檢驗自我落差量及其覺察頻率是否能有效預測人們的情緒困擾狀況，以瞭解本研究所提出來的概念架構是否可以用來說明臺灣學生的情緒困擾問題。研究結果顯示：學生的自尊、憂鬱以及焦慮都可以由一些自我落差評量有效解釋，然而由於重考生所具有的一些特質，使得自我落差評量對於重考生組內差異的解釋力多數比它們在大一樣本中為。 (三) 對高中升大學重考生的導引自我標準進行內容分析，以檢視社會教化內容與個人導引自我標準間的關連。由內容分析的結果可以發現：重考生的導引自我標準受到社會教化內容很大的影響（特別是升學觀念的社會教化），因此重考生的導引自我標準並不是散亂地分佈，絕大多數的項目可群集為二十一個類目，至於其餘的項目則是少見且較不具重要性的。 (四) 依據前述內容分析的結果，分析升學在臺灣社會中可能具有的社會心理意涵，並探索性地描繪重考生的心理處境。由內容分析發現：重考生的導引 自我標準包含很多與升學有關的價值觀（至少佔 46 %），由於這些價值觀在重考生群體中的普遍性與重要性，本研究將它們統合成一個整體結構，推論出升學在臺灣社會中可能具有的六種社會心理意涵：(1)「受高等教育，以取得謀職、營生的優勢」；(2)「具有豐富的學識，前途看好」；(3)「享受自 由學風，拓展自我潛能」；(4)「表現出眾，讓人看得起」；(5)「善盡本分，能榮顯父母師長」；(6)「戰勝自己，達成對自己的期許」。 在上述的整體結構中，由於「順利升學，取得文憑」居於最為核心的地位，因此重考生對於自我的評價普遍會受到他們對自己升學表現的預期很大的影響。「升學在臺灣社會中可能具有的社會心理意涵」與「個別重考生的心理處境」兩者之間的關係，彷彿就是「完整的圖像」與「殘缺的圖像複製品」兩者之間的關係，儘管複製不可能完美，使得後者在顏色上可能會比原圖較像 濃或是較淡，在色調上可能會比原圖像較為明朗或是更為陰鬱，然而，它們之間的共同點是，後者都可以在前者上面找到它相對應的部分（但僅為圖像的局部），使得個別重考生的心理處境與集體的社會升學觀念間，即使存在著許多表象的差異，但它們之間至少仍保有一種「理解的可滲透性」。 最後，本研究除了根據研究所得的結果，說明研究結果的意義並提出一些後續研究建議外，也討論了臺灣的升學主義解構運動，主張欲有效解決升學主義下臺灣的教育問題，需經歷一種「進步的問題轉換」，方能有效突破臺灣在教育改革中所面臨到的瓶頸。

Étude I Le fonctionnement psychique chez les femmes atteintes d’endométrioseObjectif. Approfondir les articulations du rapport psyché-corps en référant au fonctionnement mental et au vécu psychologique des femmes atteintes d'endométriose.Hypothèse de travail. Chez les femmes atteintes d’endométriose, se déterminerait un déséquilibre du fonctionnement psychique dans lequel ils y ont des difficultés dans la gestion des émotions concertantes la propre représentation corporelle. La dimension somatique du féminin est négative et mortifère et menaçant.Présentation de la population. L’échantillon est constitué de vingt femmes rencontrées dans le période d’ avril-octobre 2010 chez le service de gynécologie de l’Hôpital ARNAS Civico de Palerme. Outils. Entretiens et Test du Rorschach. Conclusions. A partir de l'analyse des protocoles Rorschach il est possible de repérer des points communs :- un défaut du processus associatif et de symbolisation témoignent d’une difficulté dans la gestion des affects.- Des angoisses somatiques.- Humeur instable.étude IIla discrepance du soi chez les femmes atteintes d’endometrioseObjectif. approfondir les aspects représentationnels concernant l’image du soi maternel et séductif chez les femmes atteintes d'endométriose et souligner les possibles effets de modération de la Discordance du Soi sur le lien entre endométriose et dépression. Hypothèse. L'endométriose n'est pas nécessairement cause d'une souffrance psychologique manifeste; la relation entre ces deux variables pourrait être modérée par des facteurs relatifs à une réorganisation de la représentation de l’identité propre.Outils. - ISDI "integrated Self-Discrepancy Index" Hardin et Lakin 2009 - Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) Beck et au.1961Conclusiones. L'endométriose induit la dépression chez les femmes qui, en même temps présentent un sentiment d'inadéquation concernant la représentation maternelle du Soi, elles se perçoivent comme des mères, réelles ou fantasmatiques, mauvaises et inadaptées. / Study IThe psychological functioning in women affected by endometriosisObjective. To investigate the articulations of the relationship between psyche-body, the mental functioning and to the psychological experience of women affected by endometriosis.Hypothesis. Women affected by endometriosis, would be have an inequality of the psychic functioning and they have difficulties in the management of the feelings and of the own physical representation. The somatic dimension of the feminine is negative and threatening.Participants. Participants are twenty women, met in period of April-October, 2010 at the gynaecology service of the ARNAS Hospital Civico of Palermo. Tools. Psychological consult; and Test of Rorschach. Resulted. From the analysis of Rorschach protocols it is possible to stress some common points:- defect of associative and symbolization process,- difficulty in the affectivity management.- somatic fears.- unstable mood.Study IIThe self discrepancy in women affected by endometriosisObjective. To investigate the self discrepancy concerning the maternal and seductive representation in women affected by endometriosis. To underline the possible effects of moderation of the self discrepancy on the link between endometriosis and depression. Hypothesis. The endometriosis is not a direct cause of a psychological suffering; the relation between these two variables could be moderated by personality factors.Tools. - ISDI "integrated Self-Discrepancy Index" Hardin et Lakin 2009 - Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) Beck et al.1961Conclusions. The endometriosis leads to the depression only in women who, at the same time present discrepancy of the self maternal representation, only if they perceive themselves as bad and inappropriate, real or imaginary, mothers.