Gender is a pervasive and regulating social institution that is operationalized in mainstream Western culture as a natural extension of the ontological difference perceived to exist between the binarily sexed bodies of male and female. Feminist theory has widely established, however, that gender is done - i.e., gender is not a naturally occurring phenomenon, but is an ongoing construction engaged and replicated by individual actors and which, while compulsory, is nevertheless optional. Within this canon is a small number of feminist theorists, notably Judith Lorber, Judith Bulter, and Nancy Tuana, who argue that the constructive manifestations of gender performativity (that is, doing of gender) are not limited to the social sphere. They argue the role of gender in the construction of the material body, asserting that doing gender has a constructive role in physical embodiment: what we do influences, and in fact creates, what our bodies are. This study engages feminist theory on the production of the body through a qualitative exploration of the lived experience of gendered bodily change, as described in the first-hand narratives of trans-identified individuals. I predict that the analysis of the narratives in the sample will show that in comparison to cisgender individuals, trans individuals possess a heightened awareness of the performative nature of gender, and that trans individuals consciously engage performativity in order to conform to the normative expectations associated with the desired gender role. I further predict that trans individuals experience sexually dimorphic bodily change to be a direct result of changes to their gender identity. The interview analysis findings provide mixed support for the first hypothesis, demonstrating that while trans individuals in the sample do demonstrate a heightened awareness of the ways in which gender is performed, the respondents’ insights came largely from their experiences in their compulsorily cisgender, pre-transition lives, rather than their current gender embodiments. The concept of performativity and its perceived implication of artificiality clashed with the respondents’ sense of their gendered actions as an expression of an authentic self, and my analysis thus addresses performativity as a necessarily polemic concept located between the subjectivity of the individual narratives and the theoretical position that gender is done. The findings provide a substantial level of support for the second hypothesis that trans individuals understand experienced bodily change to be a direct result of changes in gender identity. This study’s exploration of trans experiences of lived bodily change contributes a narrative perspective to the ongoing discussion in feminist theory which surrounds the role of gender in the production of the material body.

Thesis (MSc (Botany and Zoology))--University of Stellenbosch, 2005. / The Dwarf Crag Lizard, Pseudocordylus nebulosus, is one of several relict ectotherm species associated with the mistbelt of the Cape folded mountain belt. Prior to this study, it was only known from a single locality in the Hottentots Holland Mountains. In this study, the distribution range and microhabitat preferences of P. nebulosus were determined and resource partitioning among the three melanistic cordylids (C. oelofseni, P. capensis and P. nebulosus), co-occurring in this area, investigated. Using the locality where P. nebulosus was first discovered as centerpoint, surveys were conducted in all directions and the occurrence of all three melanistic species recorded. The previous known range of P. nebulosus, of only 0.04 km2, was extended to 11 km2. Of the three melanistic cordylids, P. nebulosus has by far the smallest range, completely overlapping with the ranges of both the other two melanistic cordylids. Pseudocordylus nebulosus was found to show a distinct affinity for water bodies such as mountain streams and seepage areas. Distinct differences in resource partitioning were found among the three species regarding crevice selection, which will prevent any significant competition during periods of environmental stress. Cordylus oelofseni preferred small crevices at ground level, P. capensis preferred large rock structures high above ground level and P. nebulosus utilized intermediate sized rock structures. Because of its relatively small range and melanistic colour, P. nebulosus could be a key indicator species of environmental change. Although the lack of objective fire management and global warming may be immediate threats to the survival of this species, possible illegal collection due to the easy access via the popular hiking trail in the area, is probably less significant a threat than was previously thought. Although its known range has been extended considerably, it is recommended that the Vulnerable status of P. nebulosus be maintained. This study provides baseline data that could be useful in future monitoring programmes to predict declines and fluctuations. In the second part of this study, the aim is to provide information about sexual dimorphism in P. nebulosus and to discuss the observed variation in sexual size dimorphism among montane cordylids. Data were recorded for all P. nebulosus individuals encountered in the Landdroskop area (Hottentots Holland Mountains), irrespective of size and sex. The total sample of 87 lizards recorded, consisted of 26 adult males, 49 adult females and 12 indeterminates. Size at sexual maturity was determined at 60 mm snout-vent length (SVL) for both sexes. The highly female-biased adult sex ratio recorded for P. nebulosus, is considered to be due to sampling error, gravid females probably basking more than males, making them easier to locate during searches. Generation glands were found to be present in males only and the number present was significantly correlated to body size. Both adult males and adult females possessed active femoral glands, but males had significantly more than females. Females were found to reach larger body sizes than males, but adult males had relatively larger heads than females. No significant difference in scar frequency was found between the male and female samples. Variation in sexual size dimorphism among montane cordylids is discussed and the need for more comprehensive data pointed out. The female-biased sexual size dimorphism in P. nebulosus and its sister species, P. capensis, is tentatively ascribed to fecundity selection for offspring to be large at birth in order to survive in a predictable unfavourable environment at high altitudes. Sexual dimorphism in head size is ascribed to sexual selection, males probably being territorial as in many other cordylids.

Thesis (MSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2001. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: PELOMEDUSA SUBRUFA is a freshwater turtle widely distributed throughout Africa and Madagascar, and is described as a Tropical to Sub-tropical species. 1 examined the female and male reproductive cycles of P. subrufa, over a 20-month period to determine whether they display a typical Tropical to Sub-tropical type reproductive cycle (pre-nuptial) or a typical Temperate Zone type reproductive cycle (post-nuptial). Blood and tissue samples were collected from wild specimens captured in the Western Cape, South Africa and these samples were supplemented by tissue samples obtained from museum specimens. In female P. subrufa seasonal variation in related circulating reproductive hormones in the plasma (estradiol, progesterone, and testosterone) were analyzed using validated ELISA kits. Plasma vitellogenin (yolk precursor produced in liver) was measured using a newly developed universal vitellogenin ELISA for vertebrates (UNIVTG). Ovarian follicles were measured (± 0.1 mm) and female ovaries were staged macroscopically (non-active, pre-vitellogenic, vitellogenic, gravid), and results were confirmed via histological sectioning of ovaries and oviducts. Females exhibited a cyclic reproductive pattern, with distinct phases of follicular enlargement (vitellogenesis), ovulation and a gravid period. Seasonal timing of the reproductive cycle coincided with those of other temperate zone freshwater turtles. Vitellogenic recrudescence began in summer (late December), and continued unabated through winter with ovulation occurring in the following spring (September-October). My data suggested that P. subrufa females mostly lay a single clutch of eggs during the late-spnng summer period (September through January). Clutch size varied between 7 -3 7 eggs, with the number of eggs being significantly correlated with maternal body size (r = 0.82, P < 0 001). Plasma estradiol and plasma vitellogenin concentrations peaked once during the ovarian cycle, typically coinciding with the period of early- to mid-vitellogenesis in late summer. Plasma testosterone varied throughout the year, but significant increases were measured during the ovulation and mating period in spring. Plasma progesterone concentrations were significantly elevated during the gestation period prior to ovi-position in mid-summer (December). In male P. subrufa spermatogenesis in mature specimens was distinctly seasonal and timing of the reproductive cycle coincided with those of other temperate zone freshwater turtles. Spermatogemc recrudescence began in summer, following emergence from a winter hibernation period (brumation) and spring mating. Peak testicular volume and maximum spermiogemc activity occurred in late summer and early autumn. Testicular regression commenced in autumn through winter. Spermatozoa were abundant in the ducti epididymi throughout the year. Plasma testosterone concentrations peaked once during the testicular cycle, typically coinciding with spermio genes is in late summer, early autumn. Ducti epididymi diameter showed significant variation throughout the year, whereas the epithelial cell height showed no significant seasonal variation. Peak secretory activity coincided with spermiogemc activity and high circulating testosterone concentrations in late summer, early autumn. Testicular recrudescence was correlated with increasing ambient air temperatures, photopenod and summer rainfall, whereas testicular regression, during late autumn, corresponded conversely with decreasing ambient air temperatures, photopenod and rainfall. Female and male reproductive cycles were asynchronous in that the peak spermatogenic activity occurred in autumn at the time when most females were depositing yolk in growing ovarian follicles. Therefore, adult females displayed a typical postnuptial vitellogemc cycle and adult males displayed a typical post-nuptial spermatogenic cycle. Differences between sexes in body size are common in many animals, and the African helmeted turtle is no exception. Sexual size dimorphism (SSD) in P. subrufa was pronounced, and using principal component analysis, it was clear that adult male P. subrufa was significantly larger than adult females. Using carapace length as the measure of body size (covariate), adult males, adult females, and juveniles differed significantly in absolute size of the carapace width, carapace depth, plastron length, plastron width, and head depth. However, there was no significant difference between adult males, adult females and juveniles in head width and head length. Therefore, adult males were larger than adult females in the seven traits measured, except in carapace depth where the females were significantly larger In the occurrence of ontogenetic growth patterns, the adults grow at a slower rate than juveniles in plastron length. There was no significant difference between adults and juveniles in shell width, however in depth, the adults grow at a faster rate when compared to the juveniles. Adults significantly grow at a faster rate than juveniles in absolute head size as well. However, when these traits were used as a whole data set (eight traits measured), there was no difference in growth rate between adults of either sex. Similarly, there was no significant difference in adults compared to juveniles in shell size, however, adults grow at a faster rate than juveniles in absolute body size and head size. Differences in body size, and in the size of traits such as shell measurements and head measurements relative to absolute body size, were assessed to clarify SSD of P. subrufa in South Africa. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: PELOMEDUSA SUBRUFA is ‘n varswaterskilpad wat wyd verspreid oor Afrika en Madagascar voorkom en word beskryf as ‘n Tropiese tot Sub-tropiese spesies. Die manlike en vroulike voortplantingspatroon van P. subrufa is oor ‘n tydperk van 20 maande bestudeer om vas te stel of hul voortplanting ooreenstem met ‘n tipiese tropiesie tot sub-tropiese voortplantingspatroon of ‘n tipiese gematigde-sone voortplantingspatroon. Waterskilpaaie is uit damme in die Wes-Kaap, Suid-Afnka gevang en bloed- en weefselmonsters is versamel. Materiaal en data is aangevul deur weefselmonsters van waterskilpaaie wat in museumversamelings gehuisves word. Ovarium follikels in P. subrufa wyfies is gemeet en die wyfies se ovanums is makroskopies gegradeer (onaktief, pre-vitellogenies, vitellogemes, dragtig) en resultate is deur histologiese snitte van die ovaria en ovidukte bevestig. Wyfies vertoon ‘n sikliese voortplantingspatroon, met duidelike fases van follikulere groei (vetllogenese), ovulasie en dragtigheid. Sirkulerende voortplantingshormone in die bloedplasma (estradiol, progesteroon en testosteroon) is ook geanaliseer met behulp van gevalideerde hormoonspesifieke ELISA bepalings. Plasma vitellogeen (‘n dooiervoorloper wat in die lewer vervaardig word) konsentrasies is ook bepaal met ‘n nuut ontwikkelde, universele (spesifiek vir werweldiere) vitellogeen ELISA (UNIVTG). Seisoenale tydsberekemng van die voortplantingsiklus het ooreengestem met die van ander varswaterskilpaaie vanuit die Gemagtigde-sone. Vitellogenese het in die somer begin en duur voort deur die grootste gedeelte van die somer, herfs en winter gevolg deur ovulasie in die daaropvolgende lente (September - Oktober). Die data ingewin stel voor d a t/5. subrufa wyfies meestal een broeisel eiers tydens laat lente-somer le (September tot Januane). Broeiselgrootte het gewissel tussen 7-37 eiers, met die hoeveelheid eiers wat beduidend met moederlike liggaamsgrootte gekorreleer was (r = 0.82, P < 0.001). Plasma estradiol en vitellogeen konsentrasies het een keer tydens die ovariumsiklus gepiek, en gewoonlik saamgeval met vroee tot middel vitellogenese in die laat somer. Plasma testosteroon het dwarsdeur die jaar gevarieer, maar beduidende toenames is gemeet tydens ovulasie en die paartydperk in die lente. Plasma progesteroon konsentrasies was beduidend hoer tydens dragtigheid kort voor eierlegging in die middel van die somer (Desember). In volwasse P. subrufa mannetjies was spermatogenese sterk seisoenaal en het die voortplantingsiklus ooreengestem met die van ander varswaterskilpadspesies wat in die gematigde streke voorkom. Na ‘n oorwinteringsperiode (brumasie), volg die panngstydperk gedurende die lente. ‘n Nuwe spermatogemese siklus het in die somer begin. Maksimale spermatogeniese aktiwiteit en testis-volume word in die laat somer en vroee herfs bereik. Testikulere regressie neem in aanvang in die herfs en duur voort tot na paringstyd in die lente. Tydens testikulere regressie word spermatosoe in die ducti epididymi gestoor. Plasma testosteroon konsentrasies het in die laat somer en vroee herfs gedurende die testikulere siklus, spermiogenese (sperm produksie fase), gepiek. Die grootte (omtrek) van die ducti epididymi het beduidende vanasie dwarsdeur die jaar getoon, terwyl epiteel selhoogtes geen beduidende seisoenale vanasie getoon het nie. Piek sekretonese aktiwiteit het saamgeval met spermiogeniese aktiwiteit en hoe vlakke van sirkulerende testosteroon tydens laat somer en vroee herfs. Testikulere groei het goed gekorreleer met toenemende omgewingstemperatuur, fotopenode en reenval, terwyl testikulere regressie in herfs met ‘n daling in omgewingstemperature, fotopenode en reenval gekorrespondeer het. Die vroulike en manlike voortplantingspatrone was nie goed ge-sinkroniseerd nie, deurdat piek spermatogeniese aktiwiteit tydens herfs voorgekom het, gedurende die tyd waann meeste wyfies besig was om dooier in groeiende ovarium follikels neer te le. Daarteenoor vertoon die mannetjies testikulere regressie tydens die pre-ovulatoriese fase en ovulasie penode van die wyfies. Dus toon volwasse wyfies ‘n tipiese gematigde sone vitellogeniese patron en volwasse mannetjies ‘n tipiese gematigde sone spermatogeniese patroon. ‘n Verskil in liggaamsgrootte tussen die geslagte is 'n algemene verskynsel by baie diere en P. subrufa is geen uitsondering me. Daar was wesenlike geslagtelike grootteverskille (SSD) in P. subrufa en ‘n hoofkomponent analise (PC A) het getoon dat daar beduidende morfometnese verskille tussen volwasse mannetjies en wyfies was. Deur karapakslengte as 'n maatstaf vir liggaamsgrootte te gebruik (mede-veranderlike), het volwasse mannetjies, volwasse wyfies en onvolwassenes beduidend verskil ten opsigte van absolute grootte van hul karapaksbreedte, karapaksdiepte, plastronlengte, plastronbreedte en kopdiepte. Geen beduidende verskil in kopbreedte en koplengte in volwasse mannetjies, volwasse wyfies en onvolwassenes is gevind nie. Derhalwe was volwasse mannetjies groter as volwasse wyfies in sewe van die liggaamseienskappe wat gemeet is, buiten vir karapaksdiepte waar die wyfies beduidend groter was. In terme van die voorkoms van ontogenetiese groeipatrone het volwassenes teen ‘n stadiger tempo as onvolwassenes in plastronlengte toegeneem. Daar was geen beduidende verskil in die groeitempo van dopbreedte tussen volwassenes en onvolwassenes nie, alhoewel dopdiepte van volwassenes teen ‘n vinniger tempo gegroei het as die van onvolwassenes. Absolute kopgrootte van volwassenes het ook teen ‘n vinniger tempo gegroei as in onvolwassenes. Wanneer hierdie eienskappe as ‘n volledige datastel gebruik word (al agt gemete eienskappe), wil dit voorkom asof daar geen verskil in groeitempo van volwassenes van die onderskeidelike geslagte is me. Daar was geen beduidende verskil tussen volwassenes en onvolwassenes, ten opsigte van dopgrootte nie, alhoewel volwassenes klaarblyklik teen ‘n vinniger tempo in liggaamsgrootte en kopgrootte toeneem. Verskille in liggaamsgrootte en grootte van ander veranderlikes, soos byvoorbeeld dop- en kop-eienskappe, relatief tot absolute liggaamsgrootte, word aangebied om geslagsdimorfisme in P. subrufa vir die eerste keer te beskryf.

The squamata reptiles present a wide array of reproductive strategies. In the genus Lepidophyma from the neotropical family Xantusiidae, there are 19 species, all of them live- bearing and diploid. Obligatory unisexuality is also present in some species. This obligatory unisexuality did not evolve via hybridization, which is unique among vertebrates. The genus thus presents a very interesting, but still poorly little explored group. Only recently our team has discovered a facultative unisexuality in Lepidophyma smithii. The unisexually produced offsprings are not fully homozygous are of both sexes, which is unique for vertebrates as well. The aim of my work is to describe the basic reproductive biology of this species, e.g. the relationship between female size and clutch size and offspring size. Additionally, my work focuses on sexual dimorphism. I tested whether L. smithii is dimorphic in body length and head size. These traits are often sexually dimorphic in squamatesu. Also, I documented the ontogeny of sexual dimorphism and reconstructed growth curves for males and females.

Introdução: As radiografias panorâmicas podem auxiliar na prática pericial e são exames normalmente utilizados nas documentações odontológicas. O presente estudo apresenta um novo método de estimativa do sexo através de pontos anatômicos visíveis em radiografias panorâmicas e também propõe métodos de identificação pessoal. Objetivo: verificar a acurácia da estimativa do sexo a partir de pontos anatômicos em radiografias panorâmicas e verificar a sua acurácia como método auxiliar para a identificação humana. Método: Foi realizado um estudo transversal, em três etapas, nas quais foram examinadas 100 radiografias panorâmicas de serviço radiológico privado, sendo 50 do sexo feminino e 50 do sexo masculino, em dois momentos distintos. Foram analisadas 13 medidas lineares e angulares na mandíbula, que serviram de base para as análises que foram mensuradas em pixel. Para verificar a confiabilidade do método foram calculados o coeficiente intra-classe (ICC), o coeficiente de variação (CV) e a técnica estatística de Bland-Altiman. A adesão dos dados à curva de normalidade foi testada utilizando o teste estatístico de Shapiro-Francia. Para verificar a diferença das medidas para o sexo masculino e feminino foi realizado o teste de Mann-Whitney. Também foi calculada a análise discriminante para predizer o sexo dos participantes. Em uma segunda etapa foram realizados teste de predição utilizando técnicas de aprendizado de máquinas. Na última etapa, foram utilizadas análises das imagens dos dois momentos das radiografias. Resultados: O ICC foi acima de 0.90 para todas as medidas e o coeficiente de variação abaixo de 5%. Na análise de Bland-Altiman, as medidas estavam dentro dos intervalos de confiança fixados. Em relação à predição do sexo, as variáveis que apresentaram diferenças estatísticas foram as medidas 1, 5, 7, 8, 12 e 13 e o índice 2. A acurácia do teste da análise discriminante foi acima de 70%. Aplicando técnicas de aprendizado de máquinas a acurácia subiu para 95%. Utilizando as imagens das radiografias panorâmicas foi possível identificar seus pares. Conclusões: A estimativa de sexo pode ser realizada por pontos anatômicos visíveis em radiografias panorâmicas e pode ser um bom método auxiliar de identificação em desastres em massa. / Introduction: Panoramic radiographs may aid in forensic practice and are tests commonly used in dental documentation. The present study presents a new method of estimating sex through anatomical points visible on panoramic radiographs and also proposes methods of personal identification. Objective: to verify the accuracy of the estimation of sex from anatomical points in panoramic radiographs and to verify its accuracy as an auxiliary method for human identification. Method: The study was performed in several steps. A cross-sectional study was carried out. A total of 100 panoramic radiographs of a private radiological service were examined, 50 female and 50 male, at two different times. 13 linear and angular measures were measured in the mandible, which served as the basis for the analysis. Measurements were taken in pixels. In order to verify the reliability of the method, the intra-class coefficient (ICC), the coefficient of variation (CV) and the statistical technique of Bland-Altiman were calculated. The adhesion of the data to the normal curve was tested using the Shapiro-France statistical test. The Mann-Whitney test was used to verify the difference between the measurements for the male and the female. Discriminant analysis was also calculated to predict participants\' sex. In a second stage, a prediction test was performed using machine learning techniques. In the last step, we used image analysis of the two moments of the radiographs. Results: The ICC was above 0.90 for all measurements and the coefficient of variation was below 5%. In the Bland-Altiman analysis, the measurements were within the set confidence intervals. Regarding the sex prediction, the variables that presented statistical differences were the measurement 1, 5, 7, 8,12 and 13 and index 2. The accuracy of the discriminant analysis test was above 70%. Utilizing machine learning techniques the accuracy has risen to 95%. Using the images of the panoramic radiographs, it was possible to identify their pairs. Conclusions: the sex estimation can be performed by anatomical points visible in panoramic radiographs and can be a good auxiliary method of identification in mass accidents.

Dentre todas as famílias de Characiformes, Characidae, com 1209 espécies válidas é, sem dúvida, a mais problemática, com suas relações intra e inerfamiliares em Characiformes ainda pouco definidas. Isto se deve à imensa diversidade e variação morfológica presente em seus representantes. Embora alguns trabalhos, tanto morfológicos quanto moleculares, incluindo um grande número de táxons terminais tenham sido realizados, as relações intra e interfamiliares continuam controversas. Estes trabalhos, no entanto corroboram o monofiletismo de um grupo caracterizado pela ausência do osso supra-orbital, um caráter aparentemente redutivo: clado 204 de Mirande, 2010, Clado 37 de Oliveira et al.,2011, Clado A de Malabarba & Weitzman, 2003 semelhante ao ortí clade proposto em Ortí & Meyer, 1997. Diversos autores resumiram as principais dificuldades enfrentadas por ictiólogos no estudo de relações intra e interfamiliares em Characidae: 1) grande diversidade aliada à relativa pouca divergência morfológica, 2) redução em tamanho, com consequente perda/truncamento de muitas estruturas por pedomorfose, 3) falta de boas séries de exemplares bem preservados e sexualmente desenvolvidos em coleções, e 4) necessidade de mais informação quanto ao colorido em vida e dimorfismo sexual. O dimorfismo sexual tem sido estudado extensivamente em Characidae, se mostrando informativo na resolução de grupos em níveis menos inclusivos, como Glandulocaudinae sensu Weitzman & Menezes (1998) e Xenurobryconini. Embora tenha havido um notável avanço no conhecimento dos caracteres sexuais secundários em Characidae, nota-se que grande parte dos estudos se restringem aos táxons com caracteres sexuais secundários mais evidentes, mais especializados e em grupos muito pouco inclusivos. Nesta contribuição realizamos uma análise anatômica comparada incluindo um grande número de espécies, representando todos os grupos menos inclusivos citados em literatura na tentativa de encontrar padrões que reflitam a evolução dos grupos menos inclusivos. Como resultado, desvendamos uma diversidade incrível nestes caracteres, que se mostraram potencialmente informativos na resolução de relações de grupos menos inclusivos em Characidae. / Among all Characiforms families, Characidae, with 1209 valid species is, undoubtedly, the most problematic, with its relationships within Characiformes still poorly defined. This is due to the great diversity and morphological variation among its members. Although some recent studies, both morphological and molecular including a great number of terminal taxa were performed, its intra and inter-family relations are still very controversial. These studies however, corroborate the monophyly of a group characterized by the absence of supra-orbital bone, a seemingly reductive character: Clade 204 of Mirande, 2010, Clade 37 of Oliveira et al., 2011, Clade A of Malabarba & Weitzman, 2003 similar to the Ortí clade proposed in Ortí & Meyer, 1997. As summarized by many authors in literature the main difficulties faced by ichthyologists in the study of intra and inter-familial relationships in Characidae: 1) diversity combined with relatively little morphological divergence, 2) reduction in size with consequent loss/truncation of many structure by paedomorphosis, 3) lack of good series of well-preserved sexually developed specimens into collections, and 4) the need form more information about the of color in life and sexual dimorphism. The sexual dimorphism has been studied extensively in Characidae, being very informative on the resolution of less inclusive groups, as Glandulocaudinae sensu Weitzman & Menezes (1998) and Xenurobryconini. Although there has been a remarkable advance in the knowledge os secondary sexual character in Characidae, it is clear that most of the studies are restricted to taxa with secondary sexual characters more evident, more specialized and on very less inclusive groups. In this contribution we performed an anatomical comparative analysis including a large number of species, representing all less inclusive groups cited in literature in attempt to find which patterns reflect the evolution of the less inclusive groups within the family. As a result, we unveil an incredible diversity in these characters, which might be potentially informative in resolving relations less inclusive groups in Characidae.

As interações entre presas e predadores possuem um papel fundamental na evolução das espécies. Para as presas em particular, uma falha na interação com um predador pode representar a morte e, consequentemente, os genes desta presa provavelmente não estariam representados em gerações futuras. Devido à essa forte pressão seletiva imposta pelos predadores, as presas evoluíram diversas estratégias defensivas. As defesas podem atuar dificultando que os predadores detectem a presas (e.g. anacorese e a cripsia) ou após os predadores estarem muito próximos ou mesmo terem atacado às presas. Tais defesas incluem a retaliação (tanto mecânica como química) e o comportamento de tanatose. Todas estas defesas mencionadas anteriormente foram propostas para opiliões. Portanto, opiliões são potencialmente bons modelos para estudar a evolução das estratégias defensivas. Nesta tese, adotamos o opilião Mischonyx cuspidatus como modelo experimental. No capítulo 1, testamos se M. cuspidatus são consistentes nos níveis de ousadia (propensão em se exporem ao risco, medido neste trabalho pelo tempo em tanatose e em freezing) e se a ousadia é influenciada pelo jejum. Encontramos que a ousadia é consistente, mas não detectamos efeitos do jejum. No capítulo 2, testamos se existem diferenças sexuais nas defesas de M. cuspidatus. Considerando o dimorfismo sexual presente nesses animais (machos possuem estruturas pontiagudas no último par de pernas que são utilizadas retaliação, mas as fêmeas não), testamos as seguintes predições i) machos dependeriam mais de defesas mecânicas do que fêmeas e ii) fêmeas dependeriam de outras formas de defesa, como defesas químicas e defesas passivas. Encontramos que os machos respondem com retaliação mecânica mais frequentemente do que as fêmeas e as fêmeas realizam tanatose mais frequentemente do que os machos. Não encontramos diferenças na frequência de uso de defesas químicas. No capítulo 3, testamos se há diferenças entre os períodos diurno e noturno na realização do 466 comportamento de tanatose em fêmeas de M. cuspidatus. Prevemos que as fêmeas realizariam tanatose mais frequentemente durante o dia. Assim, poderiam potencialmente evitar que fossem detectadas por predadores visuais. Conforme esperado, encontramos que fêmeas realizam tanatose mais frequentemente durante o dia do que à noite. Os resultados que obtivemos nesta tese contribuem para o conhecimento da evolução das estratégias defensivas, bem como fornece resultados que podem ser um passo inicial para o entendimento da consistência comportamental em opiliões e suas implicações para este táxon / Prey-predator interactions play a major role in species evolution. Failing in an interaction with a predator may represent death for prey. Consequently, prey´s genes would not be represented in the future generations. In response to the strong selective pressures imposed by predators, prey have evolved several defensive strategies. Prey defenses may hinder detection by predators (e.g. anachoresis and crypsis). Other defensive strategies may play a role after predators are in close-range or already attacked the prey, for example retaliation (both mechanical and chemical) and thanatosis. All the aforementioned defenses have been described to harvestmen. Thus, harvestmen are potentially good models to study the evolution of defensive strategies. In this thesis, we used the harvestman Mischonyx cuspidatus as our experimental model. In the first chapter, we tested if individuals of M. cuspidatus are consistent in boldness levels (propensity to take risks, herein measured by the time spent performing thanatosis and freezing). We also tested if boldness is influenced by starvation. We found that M. cuspidatus behaved consistently regarding boldness, but we did not find any effect of starvation. In the second chapter, we looked for sexual differences in defensive behavior of M. cuspidatus. Taking into account the sexually dimorphic characters of this species (males have sharp structures in the fourth pair of legs, but females do not) we tested the following predictions i) males would rely more upon mechanical defenses than females and ii) females would rely more on other kinds of defenses, such as chemical and passive defenses than males. We found that males performed mechanical retaliation more often than females and females performed thanatosis more often than males. We did not find any sexual difference with respect to chemical defense. In the third chapter we tested if there are differences in the frequency of thanatosis performed by females of M. cuspidatus between the periods of night and day. By performing thanatosis more often during the day, females of M. cuspidatus might be able to avoid being detected by visual predators. As expected, females performed thanatosis more often during the day than at night. Taken together, our results contribute to the understanding of the evolution of defensive strategies, as well as provide results that might be a first step to address new questions about behavioral consistency in harvestmen and their implications in this group

A Bothrops atrox é uma serpente de amplia distribuição na Sul América e é responsável por um número importante de mortes de pessoas, principalmente na Amazônia. As alterações na composição do veneno desta espécie têm sido associados a fatores como a ontogenia, distribuição geográfica e alimentação. Assim, este projeto visa comparar e identificar a partir da diferença entre os sexos, as características bioquímicas e biológicas do veneno de irmãos de B. atrox, sob condições ambientais controladas, contribuindo no conhecimento das mudanças nas características do veneno da espécie e pudendo auxiliar no aprimoramento da produção de antissoros mais efetivos. Os venenos foram coletados de 5 fêmeas e 4 machos irmãos de B. atrox, nascidas em cativeiro. Os venenos foram analisados quanto individualmente como o pool de cada grupo. As análises consistiram em dosagem de proteína através de BCA, eletroforese mono e bidimensional, cromatografia liquida, espectrometria de massas, atividades caseinolítica, fosfolipásica A2, L-aminoácido oxidase, zimografias contendo gelatina e caseína como substrato, dose mínima coagulante sobre o plasma e fibrinogênio, dose leta 50% e dose mínima hemorrágica. A análise individual dos venenos mostrou que os machos apresentaram maior concentração de proteínas e atividade fosfolipásica A2. No quanto aos pools de veneno, o das fêmeas apresentou maior letalidade e capacidade coagulante sobre plasma e fibrinogênio e o dos machos apresentaram maior capacidade hemorrágica e atividade L-aminoácido oxidase. O perfil espectrométrico mostrou que o pool de veneno das fêmeas, teve um 29% a mais na quantidade de proteínas identificadas em relação aos machos. Em conclusão, a ação do veneno das fêmeas estaria relacionado a uma maior capacidade para gerar dano sistêmico na presa, entanto que os venenos dos machos poderiam ocasionar um maior dano local. Além, a variabilidade nas atividades biológicas dos venenos confirma que além dos fatores ambientais existem outros que poderiam influir na plasticidade da composição dos venenos. / Bothrops atrox snake is widespread in South America and causing a large number of human deaths, mainly in the Amazon. Changes in the composition of the venom of this species have been linked to factors such as ontogeny, geographical distribution and feeding. Thus, this study aims to compare and identify from the sex difference, the biochemical and biological characteristics of venom of B. atrox siblings, under controlled environmental conditions, contributing to the knowledge of changes in the characteristics of the venom of the species and can assist in improving the production of more effective antisera. Venoms were collected from 5 females and 4 males of B. atrox siblings, born in captivity. The venoms were analyzed both, individually and as a pool of each group. The assays consisted in protein quantification using BCA, one and two-dimensional electrophorese, liquid chromatography, mass spectrometry, caseinolytic, phospholipase A2, and L-amino acid oxidase activities, zimography containing gelatin and casein as substrate, minimum coagulant dose upon plasma and fibrinogen, lethal dose 50 % and minimum hemorrhagic dose. Individual analysis of venoms showed that males had higher proteins concentration and phospholipase A2 activity. Concerning the venoms pool, the female showed higher lethality and coagulant capacity upon plasma and fibrinogen and the male had higher L-amino acid oxidase activity and hemorrhagic capacity. Spectrometric profile showed that the venom pool of female snakes had a 29 % increase in the number of proteins identified in comparison to males. In conclusion, the action of the female venom would be related to a higher capacity to generate systemic damage in the prey and male venoms could lead to higher local damage. In addition, variability in the biological activities of venoms confirms that there are other factors that could would be influencing the plasticity of the composition of venoms, in addition to environmental.

The neurophysiological pathways associated with beat-to-beat regulation of mean arterial pressure are well known. Less known are the control dynamics associated with short term maintained of arterial blood pressure about a homeostatic set point.The baroreflex (BRx), the most rapid and robust of neural reflexes within the autonomic nervous system, is a negative feedback controller that monitors and regulates heart rate and blood pressure. By leveraging the parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system, the BRx can change blood pressure within a single heart beat. To better understand these controller dynamics, a classic BRx reflexogenic experimental preparation was carried out. This thesis reconfirmed previous observations of an electrically-evoked sexually-dimorphic peak depressor response in the BRx of Sprague-Dawley rats and verified that these functional reflexogenic differences carry over to sustained electrical paradigms. Further, it uncovered interesting recovery dynamics in both blood pressure and heart rate. The rat aortic depressor nerve was used as an experimental target for electrical activation of the parasympathetic-mediated reduction in mean arterial pressure. The duration, frequency, and patterning of stimulation were explored, with emphasis on differences between sexes. By measuring the normalized percent decrease in mean arterial pressure as well as the differences in beats per minute during rest and during stimulation,the null hypothesis was rejected.<br>

Sphenophorus levis (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) é uma das principais pragas de importância econômica na cana-de-açúcar. Seu ataque pode causar a morte da planta, promovendo falhas na rebrota e dependendo do nível de infestação, inviabilizar novos cortes. Além disso, é considerado um inseto de difícil manejo. Dentre as razões, destacam-se o hábito críptico de suas larvas, que se alimentam no interior do colmo da cana, e dos adultos, que permanecem boa parte de seu tempo abaixo da palhada sobre o solo. Por esta razão, os métodos tradicionais de controle, como os agroquímicos têm sido pouco eficientes. Neste sentido, a busca por novos conhecimentos e novas estratégias para o manejo desta praga tem se tornado frequente. Assim, o objetivo principal deste trabalho foi o de reinvestigar o feromônio de S. levis, visando a possível existência de novos compostos químicos na sua composição. Além disso, foram estudados ainda a morfologia e morfometria de S. levis, visando uma ágil e fácil separação por sexo nesta espécie, e uma amostragem populacional das formas biológicas de S. levis em campo, ao longo de uma safra, tendo em vista o manejo desta praga. As fêmeas apresentaram maior tamanho corporal que os machos, porém, houve sobreposição entre o tamanho mínimo da fêmea e máximo do macho, comprometendo uma distinção pelo tamanho. A separação dos sexos em S. levis pode ser feita observando-se a parte ventral do abdome, com os machos apresentando toda a região pilosa e as fêmeas somente com pelos na região apical. Uma maior concavidade presente no final do abdome dos machos, também pode ser utilizada como um parâmetro auxiliar nesta separação. Observando-se a flutuação populacional das diferentes fases biológicas de S. levis, por meio de trincheiras, verificou-se que as larvas ocorrem praticamente durante todos os meses do ano, enquanto que pupas e adultos recém emergidos, em menos da metade das amostras. O pico populacional de larvas, pupas e adultos recém emergidos ocorreu em outubro. Para os adultos, a amostragem por meio de iscas indicou que o pico de maior intensidade foi em dezembro. Na etapa de reinvestigação do feromônio de agregação de S. levis, foram obtidas respostas positivas nas antenas de machos e fêmeas para três compostos químicos. Um destes compostos foi o álcool 2-metil-4-octanol, já identificado anteriormente por Zarbin et al. (2003). Os outros dois, são novos compostos denominados 2,3-butanodiol diacetil (2,3 diacetilbutano) e meso 2,3 butanodiol diacetil (meso 2,3 diacetilbutano). Os três compostos sintéticos foram testados em GC-EAG, porém ainda sem uma resposta conclusiva. Novos testes necessitam ainda ser conduzidos para elucidar a composição química do feromônio de agregação de S. levis. / Sphenophorus levis (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) is one of the main pests of economic importance in sugarcane in Brazil. The attack can result plant death promoting the regrowth and failures depending on the level of infestation, derail further cuts. S. levis is a hard management pest. Among the reasons, it highlights the cryptic habits of larva, which feed inside the sugarcane stalk, and adults live in the soil surface, above of straw. Due to this, the traditional control methods such as agrochemicals have been inefficient. The search for new knowledge and new strategies for the management of this pest has become frequent. Thus, the main objective of this work was to reinvestigate the S. levis pheromone, aiming the possible existence of new chemical compounds in its composition. Beside that, this study aimed to morphometric and morphological comparison between males and females, seeking sex separation in a fast and effective manner. Moreover, population sample of S. levis in field was performed, aiming at an improvement in planning of the management of this pest. Females of S. levis have a greater body size than males; however this parameter cannot be used as a sex indicator, because there was overlap between the minimum and maximum body sizes of females and males respectively. S. levis sex separation can be carried observing abdomen ventral side, where males present hairy venter and females just a tuft in the apical region, and by a greater concavity of the end of the abdomen in males. The fluctuation of S. levis biological stages through trenches, it was found that the larvae occurs during almost all months of the year, while pupae and recently emerged adults in less than half of the samples. The population peak for larvae, pupae and recently emerged adults was in October. For adults, the sampling through baits indicated that the peak intensity was higher in December. Then, in the reinvestigate the S. levis pheromone, natural extracts from males showed responses of antennas of males and females of the species for three chemical compounds. One of these compounds was the alcohol 2-methyl-4-octanol, previously identified by Zarbin et al. (2003). The other two are new compounds, called 2.3-butanediol diacetil (2.3 diacetilbutano) and meso 2.3 butanediol diacetyl (meso 2.3 diacetilbutano). The three synthetic compounds were tested in GC-EAG, but there is still no conclusive answer. New tests still need to be conducted to elucidate the chemical composition of S. levis aggregation pheromone.