Este trabalho apresenta um estudo comparativo entre os dois modelos de cultivo mais usados hoje no Estado de Roraima que são o derruba e queima e Sistemas Agroflorestais, onde se analisou as técnicas utilizadas e o desenvolvimento socioeconômico proveniente dos mesmos, utilizando-se da metodologia de pesquisa participativa, DRR (diagnóstico rápido rural), DRP (diagnóstico rápido participativo) e Sondagem, estruturadas sob a forma de questionários semi-estruturados, em formulários próprios e pela obtenção de fotografias nas áreas dos agricultores familiares da vicinal 7 do projeto de colonização do Apiaú, situado no município de Mucajaí, em Roraima. A escolha desta área foi devido a mesma apresentar os dois modelos de trabalho da terra. Verificou-se neste trabalho, entre outros itens: o tempo de ocupação do lote, nível tecnológico, acessibilidade à utilização das novas tecnologias disponíveis e os métodos de escoamento e comercialização dos produtos, além das receitas e despesas provenientes ou não da área produtiva destes agricultores familiares. Neste estudo observaram-se algumas diferenças nos dois grupos, como a de que, os agricultores familiares que trabalham com SAFs se sobressaem ao grupo do derruba e queima no que diz respeito à educação, tempo no lote, bem-estar geral, e principalmente na parte econômica, onde este grupo consegue manter uma receita razoável através da comercialização feita pelos produtos provenientes dos diferentes consórcios por eles utilizados e das criações, o que os diferencia dos que utilizam o derruba e queima que usam o fogo, que acaba prejudicando o meio ambiente, e trabalham basicamente com culturas de subsistência. Após análise realizada vimos que a continuação dos trabalhos com SAFs depende diretamente de subsídios para que eles possam produzir com qualidade e produtividade, e de políticas públicas que consigam manter os agricultores e principalmente os jovens no lote, trazendo desta forma o desenvolvimento sustentável para o Estado de Roraima. Porém, isso ainda não ocorre, o que continua causando um grande êxodo rural na região estudada. / This work presents a comparative study between two most common cultivating models presently under use in state of Roraima, witch are slash and burn and agroforestry systems (SAF’s), where the technics utilized were analized among with socioeconomical development derived from them, by utilization of participative research methodology, DRR (rapid rural diagnostic), DRP (rapid participative diagnostic) and sounding, organized as semi-structurated questionnaire, under proper forms and trough pictures obtained from smalholders farms at vicinal 7 from Apiau colonization project situated in the municipality of Mucajaí, in Roraima. The definition of this área was due the presence of both land use models. Parameters assessed in this study were period of land tenure, technological level, accessibility for utilization of available knew technologies, methods for taking products away and commercialize them, besides incomes and costs derived or not from productive areas of these smalholders. In this study, differences were observed between these two groups, that is smalholders that develop agroforestry systems outstand slash and burn group concerning to education, period of land tenure, well-being mainly concerning to economical aspects, were this group maintain a reasonable income trough commercialization of products derived from diferent crop associations utilized by them and from livestock, making them different from those who make use of slash and burn who use fire, wich ends being harmfull to environment, and cultivate basically subsistence crops. Considering analisis of this study, one may stipulate that work continuity with SAF’s depend directly on subsidies in order to them produce with quality and productivity, and on public policies that are efficient in maintaining smalholders and specialy young ones within the farms, resulting in this way in sustainable development for State of Roraima, although this still does not happen, causing a great abandonment in the region under suty.

Este trabalho apresenta um estudo comparativo entre os dois modelos de cultivo mais usados hoje no Estado de Roraima que são o derruba e queima e Sistemas Agroflorestais, onde se analisou as técnicas utilizadas e o desenvolvimento socioeconômico proveniente dos mesmos, utilizando-se da metodologia de pesquisa participativa, DRR (diagnóstico rápido rural), DRP (diagnóstico rápido participativo) e Sondagem, estruturadas sob a forma de questionários semi-estruturados, em formulários próprios e pela obtenção de fotografias nas áreas dos agricultores familiares da vicinal 7 do projeto de colonização do Apiaú, situado no município de Mucajaí, em Roraima. A escolha desta área foi devido a mesma apresentar os dois modelos de trabalho da terra. Verificou-se neste trabalho, entre outros itens: o tempo de ocupação do lote, nível tecnológico, acessibilidade à utilização das novas tecnologias disponíveis e os métodos de escoamento e comercialização dos produtos, além das receitas e despesas provenientes ou não da área produtiva destes agricultores familiares. Neste estudo observaram-se algumas diferenças nos dois grupos, como a de que, os agricultores familiares que trabalham com SAFs se sobressaem ao grupo do derruba e queima no que diz respeito à educação, tempo no lote, bem-estar geral, e principalmente na parte econômica, onde este grupo consegue manter uma receita razoável através da comercialização feita pelos produtos provenientes dos diferentes consórcios por eles utilizados e das criações, o que os diferencia dos que utilizam o derruba e queima que usam o fogo, que acaba prejudicando o meio ambiente, e trabalham basicamente com culturas de subsistência. Após análise realizada vimos que a continuação dos trabalhos com SAFs depende diretamente de subsídios para que eles possam produzir com qualidade e produtividade, e de políticas públicas que consigam manter os agricultores e principalmente os jovens no lote, trazendo desta forma o desenvolvimento sustentável para o Estado de Roraima. Porém, isso ainda não ocorre, o que continua causando um grande êxodo rural na região estudada. / This work presents a comparative study between two most common cultivating models presently under use in state of Roraima, witch are slash and burn and agroforestry systems (SAF’s), where the technics utilized were analized among with socioeconomical development derived from them, by utilization of participative research methodology, DRR (rapid rural diagnostic), DRP (rapid participative diagnostic) and sounding, organized as semi-structurated questionnaire, under proper forms and trough pictures obtained from smalholders farms at vicinal 7 from Apiau colonization project situated in the municipality of Mucajaí, in Roraima. The definition of this área was due the presence of both land use models. Parameters assessed in this study were period of land tenure, technological level, accessibility for utilization of available knew technologies, methods for taking products away and commercialize them, besides incomes and costs derived or not from productive areas of these smalholders. In this study, differences were observed between these two groups, that is smalholders that develop agroforestry systems outstand slash and burn group concerning to education, period of land tenure, well-being mainly concerning to economical aspects, were this group maintain a reasonable income trough commercialization of products derived from diferent crop associations utilized by them and from livestock, making them different from those who make use of slash and burn who use fire, wich ends being harmfull to environment, and cultivate basically subsistence crops. Considering analisis of this study, one may stipulate that work continuity with SAF’s depend directly on subsidies in order to them produce with quality and productivity, and on public policies that are efficient in maintaining smalholders and specialy young ones within the farms, resulting in this way in sustainable development for State of Roraima, although this still does not happen, causing a great abandonment in the region under suty.

This study uses energy and greenhouse gas (GHG) balances to evaluate how the scale of sugarcane cultivation affects the performance of a sugarcane bioenergy system generating exportable electricity from bagasse. Small-, medium-, large- and miller-planter systems, with cane field areas of less than 10 ha, 10 – 42 ha, 42 – 2000 ha, more than 2000 ha respectively, were modelled. Each of them also has different combinations of manual and mechanical agricultural operations, resulting in different cane yields. Miller-planter system (fully mechanised) performs best with energy yield ratio of 10.99, GHG emissions in bagasse electricity of 0.0633 kg CO2eq/kWh and avoided life cycle GHG emissions of 82.07% when replacing electricity from coal, whereas small-planter system (fully manual) has the worst performance with energy yield ratio of 6.82, GHG emissions in bagasse electricity of 0.0881 kg CO2eq/kWh and avoided life cycle GHG emissions of 75.03% when substituting electricity from coal. Sensitivity analyses show that relative performances of all sugarcane planter systems both in terms of energy and GHG emissions are not significantly affected by variations in bagasse allocation factor, in sugarcane yield and in fertiliser input (the most energy-intensive and GHG-emitting component). Moreover, they confirm miller-planter system as the overall best performer and indicate that increasing small-planters’ cane yield is the critical measure to improve their energy analysis performance. In terms of the nature of agricultural operations, mechanical operations do not necessarily require more input energy than their manual counterparts, contrary to common belief. This is the case for fertilisation, irrigation and cane loading. Fully mechanised sugarcane production at miller-planter scale is therefore strongly encouraged.

Agroforestry (AF) or agroforestry innovation (AFI) production has long been and continues to be a component of the mixed farming system of Ethiopian and smallholder farmers worldwide. Interventions continue introducing new or improved management practices, species, and techniques to raise AFI's livelihood and natural resource management contributions. Despite considerable efforts, the adoption of these AFI continues to be limited, as proved by several adoption studies and development efforts. Formal and informal studies were conducted for decades to understand the problems for the low adoption of various AFI. Nevertheless, these studies generated redundant and marginally growing important information as it has weakly altered the course of development approaches and policy regulations. Learning from previous studies, researchers have been requesting more robust studies that help address existing knowledge gaps on adopting AFI. To respond to these calls, this PhD project examined the factors affecting the adoption of AFI by smallholders and Ethiopian farmers as a case study. The project builds upon previous studies to explore the diverse perspectives that influence the adoption of AFI. Literature assessment of recent studies indicated that several factors belonging to farmers and institutions influence the adoption of AFI. Simultaneously, we discovered that some issues were explored frequently (e.g., socioeconomic factors), whereas others (e.g., psychological factors) were largely ignored. Besides, researchers have followed the static assumption (i.e., adopt or non-adopt) and failed to learn the adoption process beyond a one-time decision. Additionally, the studies focused on discrete factors and activities and failed to comprehend the diverse perspectives and factors and their combined effect on eventual AFI adoption. Ultimately, learning from the larger adoption science and previous studies, we developed a comprehensive framework, 'AFI adoption framework' (chapter 4.1), that supports the meaningful assessment of adoption practices and comprehensively discovers factors influencing AFI adoption. The framework encompassed three compartmentalized and yet interlinked components that influence AFI adoption under smallholder contexts. The framework commended both distinct studies for exhaustive elaboration and simultaneously suggested holistic examination. Besides, it recommended minor and major modifications to the research approaches, such as proper treatment of variables in econometric models, incorporation of variables related to the psychological status, and employment of robust tools such as the real-options approach for profitability analysis. Based on this framework, we designed a project and conducted fieldwork in the Amhara region of Ethiopia, a typical smallholder context. We explored the household contexts (i.e., farm level and psychological), system level features, and innovation characteristics influencing smallholders' AFI adoption decisions. It employed mixed conventional and advanced analytical tools comprising content analysis, econometric models, principal component analysis, and financial discounting methods. Advanced methods comprehend process analysis and adoption dynamism. The results from discrete analysis indicated that socioeconomic factors, psychological constructs, system level features, and innovation attributes influence AFI adoption. Regarding innovation characteristics, the different attributes are foundations for undertaking AFI adoption decisions of smallholder farmers. Beyond adopt-non-adopt concepts, we found farmers continuously undertake follow-up adoptions of varying extents such as reduced, maintained, and increased. Based on our query and comparable to existing frameworks, the newly developed 'AFI adoption framework' is more reasonable to meaningfully investigate factors influencing AFI (and agricultural innovations) adoption under smallholder contexts. However, there is a need for precaution while employing the framework to more clearly discern the adoption process and reflect the integration among the factors and activities involved from the development to the adoption of AFI. This dissertation excluded empirical analysis of profitability and holistic assessment due to the voluminous nature of the dissertation.:PREFACE ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii SUMMARY iv ZUSAMMENFASSUNG vi LIST OF FIGURES ix LIST OF TABLES xi ACRONYMS xi 1. INTRODUCTION 1 1.1. Agroforestry in Ethiopia 1 1.2. Problem statement 4 1.3. Objectives and research questions 6 1.4. Scope of the study 7 1.5. Dissertation structure 8 2. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK 11 2.1. The adoption concept 11 2.2. Theoretical frameworks on adoption 12 2.3. The critique and research context 16 2.4. The AFI adoption analytical framework 17 2.5. Description of links between objectives and research questions 19 3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 21 3.1. Description of the study area 21 3.2. Selection of innovations and farmers 22 3.3. Research methods 23 3.3.1. Data collection methods 23 3.3.2. Sampling technique and sample size 24 3.3.3. Data analysis 25 4. RESULTS 26 4.1. Agroforestry adoption as a systems concept: a review 27 4.2. Can a sequential analysis provide a more robust understanding of farmers’ adoption decisions? an example from an agroforestry adoption study in Ethiopia 58 4.3. Farmers’ intentions towards sustained agroforestry adoption: an application of the theory of planned behavior 88 4.4. Adoption under the influence of innovation attributes: the case of agroforestry innovations from Ethiopia 111 4.5. Influence of system level factors on adoption of agroforestry innovations 141 5. SYNTHESIS and CONCLUSION 170 5.1. Synthesis of key findings 170 5.1.1. State of AFI adoption research in SSA 170 5.1.2. Persistent calls for rigorous research 172 5.1.3. Critical factors affecting AFI adoption 173 5.1.4. Conceptualizing adoption as a complex decision process 175 5.2. Reflections on research method, theoretical framework, and generalization 177 5.2.1. Reflection on research methods and analytical generalization 177 5.2.2. Reflection on the theoretical framework and theoretical contribution 179 5.3. Outlook and suggestions 184 5.4.1. Recommendations for future research 185 5.4.2. Development and policy recommendations 186 5.5. Limitations of the study 186 REFERENCES 187 APPENDICES 192

Cross-cultural research requires tests of measurement invariance to determine if different populations have equivalent latent constructs. A psychometric assessment of the Agricultural Production Perspectives Scale (APPS) was necessary to determine the validity of the scale constructed and whether data from multiple countries could be compared. Using 918 farmers sampled from Kenya, Uganda, Mali, and Lesotho, I conducted exploratory factor analysis and scale reliability tests to determine whether the item loadings and factors were equivalent across populations. No factor structure could be obtained across country or agroecological populations. The data were reanalyzed within each agroecology to determine localized factor structures. Results indicate that a market driven factor and agrarian driven factor tend to emerge across multiple agroecologies suggesting some emergence of latent variables. Recommendations for scale revisions are included to increase reliability and measurement invariance. / Master of Science / CCRA-8 (Technology Networks for Sustainable Innovation)

This thesis investigates the relationship between smallholder farm household networks for food acquisition and agricultural production, food security and dietary quality in the Mount Elgon region of western Kenya and eastern Uganda. Food security and dietary quality were measured through calorie consumption of the female household head in a 24 hour dietary recall, the calculation the World Food Program Food Consumption Score (WFP FCS), and the calculation of the percentage of energy sourced from staples in the diet. Correlations between these indicators support that the WFP FCS is capturing elements of both sufficiency and quality of diet. Subsequent application of Ordinary Least Squares regression determines that both food acquisition networks and technology networks for agricultural production have a statistically significant positive impact upon calorie procurement across the sites included in the study. However, networks for agricultural production appear to operate differently in different locations with regard to dietary quality. Interpretation of qualitative data gathered through interviews with agricultural service sector providers and focus groups regarding these local networks for agricultural production suggests that this might be due to differences in the types of crops promoted and attitudes held regarding food security and dietary quality prevalent in these different localities. Overall, the results suggest that both food acquisition networks and agricultural production networks are important avenues through which gains in food security may be realized. However, development efforts need to be mindful of the crops and attitudes promoted by these networks to secure gains in both caloric sufficiency and dietary quality. / Master of Science / CCRA-8 (Technology Networks for Sustainable Innovation)

This study is an enquiry into the processes shaping rural livelihoods in peripheral areas. The study is situated in the field of livelihood research and departs in the persistent crisis within African smallholder agriculture and in rural policy debates during the postindependence era. The research takes a critical stance to the way that people-centred and actor-oriented approaches have dominated livelihood research, thereby over-shadowing structural and macro-oriented features. The aim of this study is to, through a historical perspective on rural livelihoods and policy regimes, uncover the political and economic processes, with their discursive foundations, that shape contemporary rural livelihoods in peripheral areas. The analytical framework emphasises four key factors: ideas of development and modernity; the terms of incorporation into the global economy; rural policy regimes; smallholders’ ways of making a living. Inspiration is gained from critical political geography, world-systems analysis and different perspectives on rural livelihoods and development. The empirical study is based on fieldwork in Chipata District in Eastern Zambia, investigations at the National Archives of Zambia, the British National Archives and library research. The findings are presented in three parts. The first part looks into contemporary policies and the situation among smallholders in Chipata District. The second part examines the history of the area up to independence in 1964. The third part examines the post-independence period which links colonial experience to the contemporary situation. The findings suggest that smallholders’ livelihoods are shaped by long-term politicaleconomic- discursive processes, rooted in the terms of the study area’s integration into the world-economy in the colonial period. Colonial policies peripheralised the area through tax, labour, and market policies and the creation of native reserves, all of which have led to contemporary problems of food insecurity, soil depletion and a marginal role in agricultural markets. Since the inception of colonial rule, semi-proletarianisation has been a dominant process in the area. Current diversified livelihoods are more a contemporary expression of this semi-proletarianisation than a consequence of postcolonial policies. The households in the study area show preference for a farming way of life. However, the development goal of modernity has since long led to an ‘othering’ of smallholders, labelling them backwards and resistant to change. In the early twenty-first century this ‘othering’ has been played out through a development programme aimed at changing attitudes and mindsets among the farmers in line with individualistic and entrepreneurial behaviour. The ‘othering’ discourses of contemporary and colonial policymakers display striking similarities in this case.

What happened in the post-Soviet, European grain-belt after collective farms were dissolved and in what way can we say that collective farm legacies influence agrarian developments in this region today? These are the main questions of this thesis, which is a work of critical human geography, but is also inspired by theories, methods and approaches from the social sciences, broadly defined. Territorially, the focus is Ukraine, but several articles in this thesis take a wider geographic perspective beyond Ukraine, in particular taking into account the role of Nordic investors in the agrarian sector in Ukraine and Russia. The main aim of this thesis is to examine how farms of different sizes – from small peasant farms to super large corporate farms – develop and change in post-communist circumstances. Another purpose is to reinterpret Soviet agrarian history, in light of what happened after the collapse of communism, in order to incorporate the Soviet experience in a global historical narrative, and to better understand the legacy of collective farming today. These issues are explored in four papers and a comprehensive summary. The first article examines small-scale, household “peasant” agriculture in southern Ukraine and shows the conditions and factors, which have contributed to an impressive intensification of farming in certain villages. The second article investigates large-scale, Nordic investments in Ukrainian and Russian agriculture, with the aim of explaining why many (but not all) such investments have not succeeded to the degree that investors hoped. The third paper focuses on the legacy and afterlife of Soviet-era investments in large-scale irrigation in southern Ukraine, and uses the post-Soviet reincarnation of irrigation in this region to problematize traditional narratives on Soviet environmental management in a global context. The fourth paper, with a wider historical lens, explains the link between collective farms and today’s agroholding agriculture in much of the region, while also discussing the sustainability crisis in agriculture both in a Soviet and post-Soviet context, concluding with a description of a possible and ironic (but by no means inevitable) scenario whereby post-Soviet agriculture saves global capitalism.  Theoretically, this thesis is informed by agrarian political economy; related, contemporary debates on the financialization of agriculture; and critical human geography discussions on uneven development and the geographies of difference. This thesis also is inspired by Actor Network Theory, and the view that reality is constituted by hybrid subject-objects, which are instantiated through the agency of an assemblage or network of different actors, material things, discourses, institutions, etc... While such Actor Network approaches are certainly not new, their application to Soviet and post-Soviet change is relatively new. The source material, which is the basis for the empirical approach of this thesis, is eclectic, and produced via mixed methods from different locations. Analysis is based on interviews (75 interviews in southern Ukraine, in Kyiv, and in Stockholm, plus 28 visits to household farms in one study village in southern Ukraine); participant observation (carried out in the study village in southern Ukraine and in corporate shareholder meetings mostly in Stockholm); various texts, such as corporate documents and newspaper commentary; agricultural statistics; and satellite data.  Among other conclusions, this thesis argues that, given certain factors, small-scale, household agriculture can be viable, at the same time that the concentration and consolidation of agriculture into large-scale holdings is likely to continue, at least in the short term. This thesis also highlights similarities between Soviet and capitalist agriculture in a global historical context, which is one reason that the transformation from Soviet to capitalist agriculture could occur so fast in some areas. / <p>At the time of the doctoral defense, the following papers were unpublished and had a status as follows: Paper 3: Manuscript. Paper 4: Manuscript.</p>

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Thesis (M. Com. (Accounting)) -- University of limpopo, 2022 / Water scarcity is a problem for many countries across the world. Limpopo Province is no exception, as the province has regions that are arid and/or semi-arid. The accessibility of water and the management of water is amongst the critical issues faced by some of the rural farmers in the Limpopo Province. The challenge of inappropriate and inefficient use of modern irrigation technologies is associated with the exorbitant investment and operation costs, resulting in poor irrigation practices by smallholder farmers in the province, mainly affecting the production of citrus, avocado, nuts, potatoes and tomato production resulting in reduced yields and revenues. The study conducted a case study on the selected crop in the Limpopo Province, which included crops such as citrus, nuts, avocados, potatoes and tomatoes. The objectives of the study are to examine the influence that investments in water irrigation infrastructure has on the volume of farm yield, as well as to examine the influence of the cost of water irrigation systems on the volume of farm yield on the selected crops. The study used a survey research design, together with a mixed-method approach, whereby 50 farmers were purposively sampled in the Limpopo province. Primary data were collected from a focus group discussion and the administration of a questionnaire. A multivariate analysis was used to analyse the data. Out of 50 farmers, only 48 responded, which is a 96% response rate. From the analysis, the study found that investment in water irrigation has a positive and significant influence on the farm yield at a 0.01 confidence level. Furthermore, the OLS regression shows that a positive and significant relationship exists between the total cost index for Citrus and the farm yield. The total cost index has a varying effect on the distribution of farm yield. It is expected that an increase in the level of education will increase revenue. Overall, the industry may also need to look at the introduction of hybrid systems that are more cost-effective, that take advantage of solar and wind energy. Future research can look at the different crops in different provinces of South Africa. / Kagiso Trust