abstract: Individuals differ in the extent to which they feel connected to their future selves, which predicts time preference (i.e., preference for immediate versus delayed utility), financial decision-making, delinquency, and academic performance. Future self-connectedness may also predict how individuals compare themselves with their past selves, future selves, and other people. Greater connectedness may lead to more self-affirming types of temporal self-comparison, less self-deflating types of temporal self-comparison, and less social comparison. Two studies examined the relation between future self-connectedness and comparison processes, as well as effects on emotion, psychological adjustment, and motivation. In the first study, as expected, future self-connectedness positively predicted self-affirming temporal self-comparison and negatively predicted self-deflating temporal self-comparison and social comparison. In addition, future self-connectedness had beneficial direct and indirect effects on adjustment, emotion regulation, and motivation. Unlike previous research, this study examined all three components of future self-connectedness, as opposed to only one. Exploratory analyses examined the items comprising the similarity-connectedness component and found that the relation of these items to the other variables in the model did not differ, though some of the relations in the model were moderated by college generation status. The second study tested whether increasing future self-connectedness would have similar effects on comparison, adjustment, emotion, and motivation. It implemented a pilot future self-connectedness manipulation, an established identity-stability manipulation, and a control condition. The pilot manipulation and identity-stability manipulation failed to affect future self-connectedness relative to control, and did not affect comparison, motivation, adjustment, or emotion. Future research should ascertain whether there is a causal link between connectedness and social comparison or temporal self-comparison processes. Overall, this research links future self-connectedness to social comparison and temporal self-comparison processes, as well as well-being, emotion, and motivation, which demonstrates the importance of connectedness in new, important areas. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Psychology 2018

A comparação social é um elemento ubíquo na sociedade, na qual os indivíduos, consciente ou inconscientemente, utilizam emoções, habilidades e opiniões dos demais para se avaliarem, se aprimorarem ou se promoverem. Por sua constante presença nas relações interpessoais e na vida das pessoas, a comparação social tem sido investigada e reconhecida a partir de uma ampla gama de consequências como emoções, julgamentos, atitudes e comportamento, e dentro deste último o comportamento de consumo. Para a melhor compreensão e aplicação da comparação social para a área de marketing, no entanto, é fundamental entender que suas consequências não ocorrem de maneira homogênea e o que influencia nessa heterogeneidade. Diante disso, esta pesquisa foi desenvolvida, buscando investigar como elementos individuais, como os valores pessoais, e variáveis associadas às relações sociais, como a sensação de poder, podem atuar no fenômeno da comparação social e em suas consequências, buscando assim contribuir para o maior reconhecimento teórico e prático deste fenômeno. Foi delimitado como campo de estudo a comparação social estética devido aos impactos psicológicos e sociais que este campo possui nos indivíduos, principalmente nas mulheres, sendo estas delimitadas como a população desta pesquisa. A partir da realização de três estudos empíricos, utilizando os métodos survey e experimental, foi possível comprovar a moderação dos valores de autopromoção e da sensação de poder na comparação social estética. Os valores de autopromoção exercem um impacto positivo na comparação social, estando correlacionados positivamente com a orientação que os indivíduos têm em se compararem, assim como estão associados com as consequências psicológicas geradas a partir da comparação. A sensação de poder, por sua vez, apresentou um impacto negativo sobre a comparação social estética, minimizando suas consequências psicológicas. A partir desta pesquisa buscou-se contribuir para a teoria da comparação social, abordando-a a partir da visão ainda pouco explorada do fenômeno de comparação como bietápico e, assim, cooperar para minimizar a existente carência de poder preditivo que a comparação social sofre, a qual limita o reconhecimento do seu papel central para as ciências sociais e para a área de marketing. Juntamente a isso pretendeu-se propor novas possíveis estratégias que possam minimizar os efeitos negativos da comparação social estética imposta pela mídia na forma como as mulheres se percebem. / Social comparison is an ubiquitous element in society, where individuals consciously or unconsciously use others emotions, skills and opinions to evaluate, to promote or to improve themselves. For its continuous presence in interpersonal relations and in people's lives, the social comparison has been investigated and recognized for a wide range of consequences such as emotions, judgments, attitudes and behavior, and also consumption behavior. To improve the comprehension and application of social comparison to the marketing area it is necessary to understand that its consequences are not homogeneous through the individuals, and what can impact this heterogeneity. Considering that, this research was developed in order to investigate how individual elements, such as personal values, and variables associated with social relations, such as the power sense, can influence the phenomenon of social comparison and its consequences. By this, we expect to contribute to the improvement of theoretical and practical recognition of social comparison phenomenon. It was delimitated as a research field the aesthetics social comparison considering its psychological e social consequences to humans, specially women, being this gender the target population of this research. Through three empirical studies, one survey and two experimental studies, it was possible to prove the moderation of self-promotion values and the power sense at aesthetics social comparison. The self-promotion values had a positive impact at social comparison, firstly by its positive correlation with social comparison orientation, and second by influencing the intensity of psychological consequences of social comparison. The power sense, on the other hand, had a negative impact on the aesthetic social comparison, minimizing its psychological consequences. This research aimed to contribute to the theory of social comparison, addressing it from the still underexplored vision of social comparison as a two-stage phenomenon, and thus cooperate to minimize the existing lack of predictive power that this phenomenon suffers, limiting its recognition as a central role in the social sciences and in marketing field. Related to this, it was proposed new strategies that can be used to minimize the negative effects of aesthetic social comparison imposed by the media in the way women perceive themselves.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Special Education, Counseling and Student Affairs / Judith K. Hughey / Adolescence is a time when many experience challenges in life to which they have not been previously exposed. Complicating the transition to adolescence is the perception that they are “on stage” and everyone is watching and evaluating their transition through puberty (Woolfolk, 2019). Youth face the challenge of separating themselves from their parents, gaining more independence, and growing into their own identity (Erikson, 1968; Woolfolk, 2019). With this independence arises more reliance on peers, friends, and outside influences. They are faced with decisions to make about their postsecondary choice, career path, goal setting, body image issues, identity, sexual selves, and peer relationships. Gender differences in self-esteem have also been shown to emerge during adolescence, with girls displaying lower levels of self-esteem than their male peers (Impett, Sorsoli, Schooler, Henson, & Tolman, 2008). The emphasis on fitness, thinness, and outward beauty, increases the pressure on adolescents, specifically for this study, females to have the “perfect” body to fit with society ideals (Hartocollis, 2013). The study explored self-esteem, self-efficacy, life satisfaction, social comparison, and body image in 8th and 12th grade girls from a rural middle school and a rural high school in a mid-size Midwestern city. The study population included 97 participants among the two schools and utilized a cross-sectional design, causal-comparative. Survey results indicated 12th grade girls do not have higher self-esteem, life satisfaction, or self-efficacy and reported lower “how I look” and “how I feel” body image than 8th grade girls. However, 12th grade girls reported engaging in social comparison less than 8th grade girls. It is significant that girls in the study who reported school-based curriculum exposure to nutrition, goal setting, and respecting their sexual selves reported higher life satisfaction, self-esteem, and self-efficacy. The girls also reported engaging in less social comparison. The results from this study indicated the need and strong support for intentional school-based curricula. Self-esteem, self-efficacy, body image and social comparison are factors in life satisfaction and should be addressed as part of a comprehensive, standards based social-emotional curriculum.

Submitted by Bruno Mendes (brunomendes.adm@gmail.com) on 2013-08-29T18:08:47Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertação - Bruno Mendes.pdf: 1117752 bytes, checksum: 987643b9f9b5bf6db7c0e54a767818b2 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by ÁUREA CORRÊA DA FONSECA CORRÊA DA FONSECA (aurea.fonseca@fgv.br) on 2013-08-29T18:23:20Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertação - Bruno Mendes.pdf: 1117752 bytes, checksum: 987643b9f9b5bf6db7c0e54a767818b2 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Marcia Bacha (marcia.bacha@fgv.br) on 2013-08-30T17:03:47Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertação - Bruno Mendes.pdf: 1117752 bytes, checksum: 987643b9f9b5bf6db7c0e54a767818b2 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2013-08-30T17:04:11Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertação - Bruno Mendes.pdf: 1117752 bytes, checksum: 987643b9f9b5bf6db7c0e54a767818b2 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013-08-05 / Investigações anteriores relacionadas ao schadenfreude concentraram-se nos fatores que provocam o prazer no infortúnio do outro. A presente pesquisa tem como objetivo investigar o impacto do schadenfreude na tomada de decisão. Dois estudos (um em laboratório e uma em campo) abordam o impacto do schadenfreude em decisões realizadas no passado e no futuro em eventos desportivos. O primeiro estudo confronta sentimentos de orgulho em uma vitória do time favorito contra os sentimentos de perda schadenfreude de uma equipe rival. Os resultados mostraram que as pessoas preferiam enviar notícias sobre a vitória da equipe favorita (orgulho) ao invés da perda do time rival (schadenfreude) quando as diferenças de pontuação no jogo eram pequenas (por exemplo: time favorito 1 x 0 outro, contra, o time rival 0 x 1 favorito). No entanto, as pessoas eram mais propensas a fazer a escolha schadenfreude (por exemplo, escolher o envio de uma notícia sobre a derrota de um time rival) quando o resultado era alto (por exemplo, time favorito 5 x 0 rival, contra, time rival 0 x 5 favorito). O segundo estudo no campo examina como schadenfreude influencia a vontade de apostar contra um time rival. Para responder a esse problema, a preferência da equipe do participante é avaliada (Participantes que apoiam time alvo contra os que apoiam o rival). Uma manipulação de louvor é adicionada, tal que os consumidores vejam ou não um elogio à equipe alvo enquanto eles estão fazendo uma aposta sobre o resultado da partida. Os resultados mostram que os torcedores do time alvo não foram influenciados pela manipulação de louvor. No entanto, torcedores do time rival aumentaram sua probabilidade de aposta contra o time alvo (ou seja, mostraram um comportamento que envolve o schadenfreude) quando esta foi elogiada antes do jogo. / Previous research related to schadenfreude has focused on the factors that elicit one’s pleasure in another’s misfortune. This present research aims to investigate the impact of schadenfreude on decision-making. Two studies (one in the lab and one in the field) address the impact of schadenfreude about past and future sport events on people´s choices. The first study confronts pride feelings from one’s favorite team victory against schadenfreude feelings from one’s rival team loss. The results showed that people preferred to send news about one’s favorite team victory (pride) over one’s rival team loss (schadenfreude) when the outcome of the game displayed small score differences (e.g., favorite team 1 x other 0 vs. rival team 0 x other 1). However, people were as likely to select the schadenfreude option (i.e., choose to send the news about the rival team’s loss) when the score differences were large (e.g., favorite team 5 x other 0 vs. rival team 0 x other 5). The second study, conducted in the field, examines how schadenfreude influences one’s willingness to wage against a rival team. To address this issue the participant’s team preference is assessed (i.e., whether the participant cheers for the target team versus for a rival team). A praise manipulation is implemented such that the consumers either see or not a praise to the target team when they are making a bet on the outcome of the game. The results show that supporters of the target team were not influenced by the praise manipulation. However, supporters of a rival team increased their probability of betting against the target team (i.e., to display schadenfreude behavior) when the target team was praised prior to the game.

Reality shows remain a prominent genre of today’s media culture. More importantly, plot lines tend to be dominated by interpersonal relationship trajectories, which often include conflict such as relational aggression (Coyne, Robins, & Nelson, 2010). When relational aggression is included in analyses that compare the content of scripted and reality shows, researchers find that aggression is more likely to occur in reality shows than scripted shows (Coyne et al., 2010). Furthermore, reality shows are often described as “unscripted,” portraying “real” people during their “ordinary” days (Riddle & De Simone, 2013). Relational aggression is link to physical violence and other poor social and psychological effects (e.g., Caetano, Vaeth, & Ramisetty-Mikler, 2008; Linder, Crick, & Collins, 2002) and, therefore, needs better understanding. Therefore, the present study’s theoretical foundation in cultivation theory, theory of reasoned action, social cognitive theory, and social comparison theory sought to understand how reality shows influence adult viewers and their perceptions and behaviors within romantic relationships. Four-week longitudinal data from 117 dyads was analyzed for potential media effects and how those effects could influence relational aggression within relationships and relational quality. The results suggest minimal media effects but do support negative longitudinal effects of relational aggression on relational quality. Limitations and future directions are discussed.

This study uses a longitudinal case study approach to observe change in ‘US and THEM-thinking’. Its purpose is to increase awareness of identity processes among participants and to test if the Attitude-Behaviour-Context-Triangle (the ABC-triangle) may be a way to achieve that. The ABC-triangle is modified as an ‘identity-analysis tool’ rather than a ‘conflict-analysis tool’.               Aspects relating to recognition of multiple identity affiliations compared to singular-identity categorisation is of interest. The traditional identity theories suggest that high identity salience increase singular-identity categorisation and thereby increase positive emotions for ingroup and negative emotions for outgroup. This study is partly based on the social identity perspective but complements it with Thoits’ identity-accumulation hypothesis and Hogg’s uncertainty-identity theory. Hogg’s theory locates uncertainty reduction as a main contributor to singular-identity categorisation together with its’ implied negative consequences. Hogg’s solutions are located both in multiple identity affiliations, as do Thoits, and in perceived cognitive ability to deal with uncertainty. This study emphasises awareness of identity processes to be the single most important factor for decreasing negative views of ‘THEM’. Overlooked in the more dominant theories of this area, it finds that recognition of multiple identity affiliations influences the perceived singular-identity terms imposed by an ‘US and THEM-situation’. Thereby, challenging imposed identity-restrictions and perceived intergroup competition. Furthermore, it questions the theoretical importance given to identity salience in previous research and theories since high identity salience, in this case, does not equal a singular-identity categorisation or increase negative views of ‘others’.

A comparação social é um elemento ubíquo na sociedade, na qual os indivíduos, consciente ou inconscientemente, utilizam emoções, habilidades e opiniões dos demais para se avaliarem, se aprimorarem ou se promoverem. Por sua constante presença nas relações interpessoais e na vida das pessoas, a comparação social tem sido investigada e reconhecida a partir de uma ampla gama de consequências como emoções, julgamentos, atitudes e comportamento, e dentro deste último o comportamento de consumo. Para a melhor compreensão e aplicação da comparação social para a área de marketing, no entanto, é fundamental entender que suas consequências não ocorrem de maneira homogênea e o que influencia nessa heterogeneidade. Diante disso, esta pesquisa foi desenvolvida, buscando investigar como elementos individuais, como os valores pessoais, e variáveis associadas às relações sociais, como a sensação de poder, podem atuar no fenômeno da comparação social e em suas consequências, buscando assim contribuir para o maior reconhecimento teórico e prático deste fenômeno. Foi delimitado como campo de estudo a comparação social estética devido aos impactos psicológicos e sociais que este campo possui nos indivíduos, principalmente nas mulheres, sendo estas delimitadas como a população desta pesquisa. A partir da realização de três estudos empíricos, utilizando os métodos survey e experimental, foi possível comprovar a moderação dos valores de autopromoção e da sensação de poder na comparação social estética. Os valores de autopromoção exercem um impacto positivo na comparação social, estando correlacionados positivamente com a orientação que os indivíduos têm em se compararem, assim como estão associados com as consequências psicológicas geradas a partir da comparação. A sensação de poder, por sua vez, apresentou um impacto negativo sobre a comparação social estética, minimizando suas consequências psicológicas. A partir desta pesquisa buscou-se contribuir para a teoria da comparação social, abordando-a a partir da visão ainda pouco explorada do fenômeno de comparação como bietápico e, assim, cooperar para minimizar a existente carência de poder preditivo que a comparação social sofre, a qual limita o reconhecimento do seu papel central para as ciências sociais e para a área de marketing. Juntamente a isso pretendeu-se propor novas possíveis estratégias que possam minimizar os efeitos negativos da comparação social estética imposta pela mídia na forma como as mulheres se percebem. / Social comparison is an ubiquitous element in society, where individuals consciously or unconsciously use others emotions, skills and opinions to evaluate, to promote or to improve themselves. For its continuous presence in interpersonal relations and in people's lives, the social comparison has been investigated and recognized for a wide range of consequences such as emotions, judgments, attitudes and behavior, and also consumption behavior. To improve the comprehension and application of social comparison to the marketing area it is necessary to understand that its consequences are not homogeneous through the individuals, and what can impact this heterogeneity. Considering that, this research was developed in order to investigate how individual elements, such as personal values, and variables associated with social relations, such as the power sense, can influence the phenomenon of social comparison and its consequences. By this, we expect to contribute to the improvement of theoretical and practical recognition of social comparison phenomenon. It was delimitated as a research field the aesthetics social comparison considering its psychological e social consequences to humans, specially women, being this gender the target population of this research. Through three empirical studies, one survey and two experimental studies, it was possible to prove the moderation of self-promotion values and the power sense at aesthetics social comparison. The self-promotion values had a positive impact at social comparison, firstly by its positive correlation with social comparison orientation, and second by influencing the intensity of psychological consequences of social comparison. The power sense, on the other hand, had a negative impact on the aesthetic social comparison, minimizing its psychological consequences. This research aimed to contribute to the theory of social comparison, addressing it from the still underexplored vision of social comparison as a two-stage phenomenon, and thus cooperate to minimize the existing lack of predictive power that this phenomenon suffers, limiting its recognition as a central role in the social sciences and in marketing field. Related to this, it was proposed new strategies that can be used to minimize the negative effects of aesthetic social comparison imposed by the media in the way women perceive themselves.

Thesis (M.A. (Clinical Psychology)) -- University of Limpopo, 2021 / The physical changes that a woman undergoes during pregnancy may affect her body image and consequently, her emotional and psychological well-being. The purpose of this study was to develop a comprehensive understanding of the lived experiences of pregnant women and the effect of pregnancy on their self-image and subsequent emotional and psychological experiences. Eight women who had previously given birth or were pregnant were recruited as participants by employing snowball sampling. Semi-structured interviews were conducted to collect data. Interpretive phenomenological analysis was employed to analyse the data. The findings revealed that the majority of the participants generally experienced overall body satisfaction. However, their experience was largely influenced by the phase of pregnancy and relevant physical changes associated with the particular phase. Furthermore, the social comments they received had an influence on their experiences. The findings were also related to the social comparisons in which the participants tended to engage. Finally, it is recommended that future research be conducted on the experience of body image of pregnant women within the context of their culture, ethnicity and unique demographics given that culture influences ideas about ideal body shape and size. Future studies should include a more diverse sample. Keywords: Body image, objectification, self-objectification, social comparison

Au cours des dernières décennies, la notion de carrière a cheminé d’une conception traditionnelle caractérisée par une mobilité ascendante au sein d’une seule organisation vers de nouvelles conceptions contemporaines : les carrières protéiformes, les carrières sans frontière, les carrières post-organisationnelles, etc. Les recherches distinguent deux dimensions. D’une part, la carrière objective représente la suite des postes occupés par un individu tout au long de sa vie professionnelle et, d’autre part, la carrière subjective est l’interprétation faite par l’individu de son parcours. Cette distinction est importante dans le sens où une même carrière objective peut être interprétée différemment par deux personnes. En ce sens, le « succès de carrière perçu » constitue une dimension importante de la carrière subjective. Il renvoie à la perception, par un individu, du fait que sa carrière peut être considérée comme un succès, comme un parcours « normal » ou comme un échec, soit dans l’absolu, soit par rapport à des objectifs initiaux qu’il s’était fixé. Le but de cette étude est de mesurer le sentiment de succès de carrière d’une population de cadres et d’en identifier les déterminants. Un deuxième objectif est d'étudier comment les ancres de carrière et l’auto-efficacité professionnelle prédisent le succès objectif et la satisfaction de carrière. Le dernier objectif est d’étudier l’influence du succès de carrière sur la satisfaction de vie et l’intention de départ. Notre modèle de recherche a été conceptualisé par une étude quantitative dans laquelle 362 cadres ont participé. Nous avons trouvé que la satisfaction de carrière prédit plus le succès de carrière perçu, la satisfaction de vie et l’intention de départ que le succès objectif. Les résultats montrent également que l’auto-efficacité professionnelle influence positivement la satisfaction de carrière et que seules l’ancres Management et Technique sont liées au succès objectif / Over the past decades, the concept of career has moved from a traditional conceptualization characterized by an upward mobility within a single organization to new contemporary designs: boundaryless careers, protean careers, post-corporate careers, etc. The research distinguish two dimensions. First, the objective career represents the result of the positions occupied by an individual throughout its work life. Second, the subjective career is the interpretation made by the individual of its work histories. This distinction is important because two persons may interpret a same objective career differently. In this sense, the ‘perceived career success’ constitutes an important dimension of subjective career. It refers to the perception, by an individual, of the fact that his/her career can be regarded as a success, as normal or as a failure, either in the absolute or relative to the initial goals that he/she had set. The purpose of this study is to measure the managers’ perceived career and to identify its determinants. A second goal is to study how career anchors and occupational self-efficacy predict objective success and career satisfaction. The last purpose is to study the influence of career success on life satisfaction and turnover intention. Using a sample of 362 French managers, we found that career satisfaction predicts more perceived career success, life satisfaction and turnover intention than doe’s objective career success. Our results also show that occupational self-efficacy influences positively career satisfaction and that only managerial and technical anchors have an impact on objective career success.

The current research study examined the way that social networking site use impacts individuals’ self-esteem in relation to their romantic relationship, relationship satisfaction, and social comparison orientation. Previous research has established links between SNS use and negative mental health outcomes, but no current research studies SNS use, specifically time spent on SNS use, and how it relates to self-esteem, relationship satisfaction, and social comparison orientation. Using social comparison theory, this study predicted that increased time spent on SNSs would negatively impact relationship satisfaction, self-esteem, and positively predict social comparison orientation. An online survey was used to test the relationship among these variables by asking questions and using scales related to relationship satisfaction, relationship contingent self-esteem, and social comparison orientation, while looking at how time spent on SNS impacted these results, as well as how often an individual posts about their relationship impacted the results. Structural equation modeling was used to analyze the data. This study found that increased time spent on SNS platforms did negatively impact relationship satisfaction and self-esteem, as well as positively predict social comparison orientation. Although, some of the hypotheses were not supported or were only partially supported, the findings from this study further show the importance of understanding SNS use, especially in the clinical context, so it can be assessed and utilized in the therapy setting.