Syftet med denna studie var att undersöka sambanden samt eventuella könsskillnader mellan Social Jämförelse, Självkänsla och användande av Sociala  Medier hos gymnasieelever . Enkäter delades ut till 127  elever på en skola i södra Sverige. Eleverna ombads besvara frågor om användningen av Sociala Medier samt uppskatta deras Självkänsla som bygger på Rosenberg self-esteem scale och deras upplevda grad av Social Jämförelse som baserades på en förkortad version (Schneider & Schupp, 2013) av the Iowa-Netherlands Comparison Orientation Measure (Buunk & Gibbons, 1999). Resultatet visade signifikanta samband samt könsskillnader mellan användning av Sociala Medier, Social Jämförelse och Självkänsla. Det visade sig att elever som spenderade mer tid på Sociala Medier och hade högre grad av Social Jämförelse tenderade att ha lägre Självkänsla. Kvinnor tenderade även spendera mer tid på Sociala Medier, ha högre grad av Social Jämförelse och lägre grad av Självkänsla än männen. I linje med Findahl och Davidsson (2015) studie fanns det tendenser till att Sociala Medier ökat men att aktiviteten minskar. I vår studie tenderade eleverna att lägga ut uppdateringar när positiva händelser hade skett eller bilder på Selfies och vänner samt bilder som redigerats. Detta skulle kunna bidra till en allvarligt skev bild av verkligheten som kan leda till negativa effekter (som lägre självskänsla). Mot bakgrund av resultaten bör fördjupade undersökningar kring Sociala Mediers och Social Jämförelses inverkan på vårt välmående utredas. / The purpose of this study was to investigate the association between Social Media use, Self-esteem and Social Comparison. Questionnaires were distributed to 127 pupils at a school in southern Sweden. Students were asked to answer questions about the use of social media and assess their self-esteem based on Rosenberg self-esteem scale and their perceived level of social comparison that was based on a shortened version (Schneider & Schupp, 2013) of the Iowa-Netherlands Comparison Orientation Measure (Buunk & Gibbons, 1999 ). The results showed significant relationships, and also gender differences in the use of social media, social comparison and self-esteem. The study showed that students who spent more time on social media and had greater social comparison tended to have lower self-esteem. Women also tended to spend more time on social media, have greater social comparison and lower levels of self-esteem than men. The study confirmed Findahl och Davidsson (2015), showing that social media is increasing, but that the activity decreases. Students tended to only post positive events or images on Selfies and friends as well as images edited. This could contribute to a serious distortion that can lead to negative effects (such as lower self-esteem). Given the results, we propose that future studies focus on in-depth research about social media impact on our wellbeing and how modern social comparison works.

Syftet med studien var att undersöka mentalt hälsofrämjande aspekter av sociala medier i relation till skapande. En kvalitativ metod som bestod av tre fokusgruppsintervjuer med 3-5 deltagare i varje fokusgrupp användes för att samla in data. Insamlad data analyserades med hjälp av en manifest innehållsanalys, där tre underkategorier; omge sig med inspiration och likasinnade, olika dimensioner av att visa upp sina verk och omfamna speglandet av verkligheten bildade ett huvudtema; att dela och ta del av: hälsofrämjande aspekter av skapande och sociala medier. Resultatet visar på att sociala medier i relation till skapande bidrog positivt till den mentala hälsan genom bland annat genuinitet, ärlighet, samhörighet och inspiration bland likasinnade på sociala medier. Bekräftelse kunde vara både positivt och negativt beroende på hur deltagarna förhöll sig till det. Hanterandet av sårbarheter framkom i form av olika strategier, däribland att ta kontroll och olika sätt att finna mod. Slutsatsen visar att det går att få hälsofrämjande effekter på den mentala hälsan genom att använda sig av sociala medier i relation till sitt skapande. / The aim of this study was to explore mentally health promoting aspects of social media in relation to crafting. A qualitative method which consisted of three focus group interviews with 3-5 participants in each focus group was used to collect data. The data were analyzed with a manifest content analysis, where three subcategories; surround yourself with inspiration and like-minded people, various dimensions of displaying your work and embrace the reflection of reality formed a main theme; to share and take part: health promotive aspects of creative crafting and social media. The result shows that crafting in relation to social media contributed positively to mental health by factors like genuineness, honesty, affinity and inspiration amongst like-minded people on social media. Confirmation and affirmation could be both positive and negative depending on how the participants related to it. Dealing with vulnerability emerged as different strategies, for example taking control and different ways to find courage. The conclusion shows that it’s possible to get health promotive effects on mental health by using social media in relation to one's crafting.

Master of Science / Department of Apparel, Textiles, and Interior Design / Joy Kozar / The thin female body-type perpetuated in the media has historically caused decreased body satisfaction in adolescent and young adult females (Dittmar, 2009). Previous studies have examined the impact of these images in traditional media, but few studies have examined images seen in social media. Therefore, this study examined how social media impacts the body satisfaction of adolescent and young adult females through the variables of age, time spent on social media, social comparison behaviors, and appearance-related attitudes. The study utilized a sample of females between the ages of 14 to 25. As a component of this study, age was broken into two groups, creating a younger (14-18) and older (19-25) group. This allowed the researcher to make comparisons between the two age groups in relation to the variables being studied. An online questionnaire was utilized as part of this study and distributed to college professors, high school instructors, high school and college-age students, and via social media platforms such as Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter. A total of 357 female respondents between the ages of 14 and 25 years old participated in the study. Of the 357 participants, 140 (39.2%) were in the age category of 14-18 and 217 (60.8%) were in the age category of 19-25. Results indicated that participants who accessed their social media accounts more times per day were more likely to engage in social comparison behavior to fashion models and celebrities and peers. In addition, the more participants compared themselves with fashion models and celebrities and peers, the higher their appearance-related attitudes, which lowered their body satisfaction. Age was not a significant factor in predicting time spent on social media, participation in social comparison behavior, or appearance-related attitudes. However, among the sample, younger participants were overall more satisfied with their body than older participants. It was determined that on average, participants checked their social media accounts between 5 and 15 times a day and spent three or less hours daily on social media. These findings have important implications for the fashion and cosmetics industries and AT educators. The results indicate that social media has an impact on young women’s body satisfaction.

My dissertation examines how individuals respond to workplace social comparisons. I measure the explicit set of referent others that individuals compare themselves against in order to evaluate their own level of performance. I examine how the social context of these comparisons impact discretionary performance related behaviors by examining how an individual’s position within a social network and the structural characteristics of an individual’s reference group influences the experience of discrete emotions. Specifically, I examine how malicious envy and benign envy mediate the relationship between social comparison and workplace behavior in a field setting. Results indicate that social network structure plays a significant role in motivating both productive and counterproductive responses to social comparison. Whether or not an employee responds to upward social comparisons by increasing their own work effort or engaging in deviant behavior is influenced by the experience of benign and malicious envy, which is in turn influencedby the network structure of reference groups. Furthermore, social network position plays a moderating role in the occurrence of workplace deviance by either enhancing or limiting the opportunities an employee has to engage in deviant behavior.

The aim of this thesis is to produce a substantive grounded theory of junior-to-senior transition and as a result of this work, to provide knowledge and guidance for coaches, sport psychologists and other personnel supporting young aspirant athletes. Underpinned by a social constructionist philosophy, the research programme was designed to capture and interpret the social world of the participants and to interpret the perceptions derived from their own lived experience of the transition. The thesis consists of three studies which, in a concatenated programme of research, are predicated one upon another. In order that understanding in social research can be advanced, the development of theory requires several rounds of fieldwork, analysis and publication (Stebbins, 1992,2006). Thus the building of theory took place over the initial two studies, the first of which involved the in-depth interviewing of nine participants from individual sports (M age = 24.5 years, S. D. = 4.3 years). As a consequence of this exercise, rich data were collected, depicting the participants' experiences of the juniorsenior transition. Grounded in these data, a preliminary model of junior-to-senior transition was constructed using Strauss and Corbin's (1998) guidelines for grounded theory analysis. More specifically, the resultant model revealed a cyclical process: of learning, identity development and progress at transition. Inception of the process is characterised by immersion in the post-transition environment during the pre-transition phase, in which significant observational learning occurs via the use of more senior role models. This process leads to the identification of discrepancies between the actual (or junior) and ideal (or senior) self. This promotes a period of adjustment in which the behaviours relevant to senior status are incorporated within the self, bringing about a sense of readiness, or ability to cope with the transition. In essence, the athletes had sought to structure their pre-transition environment to represent that which they would encounter post-transition, thereby generating stability for their self-identity. The modification of identity, through the adjustment of behaviours and roles, predicted a competitive breakthrough, at which point the athletes began to think about the subsequent step at senior level, and hence the cycle of immersion, learning and adjustment continued. (Continues...).

Previous empirical research and anecdotal accounts suggest that “subclinical narcissism” or “average Joe’s narcissism” is one of the most prevalent social phenomena in many parts of the world. Research also suggests that there will be an unprecedented escalation “in average Joe narcissists” among future generations of consumers. The objective of this study is two-fold. The first objective of this study is to explore the moderating effect of the individual’s level of narcissistic personality on their word-of-mouth (WOM) communications. The second objective of this study is to explore the boundary conditions of the first objective. The data were collected from a large number of consumers through Amazon Mechanical Turk. The results support many of the hypotheses accordant with the characteristics of the subclinical narcissistic individual. Specifically, the moderating effect of an individual’s level of narcissistic personality trait on the decision to engage in different types of WOM communications varies across the tested contexts. This study is intended to respond to social scientists' recent call for studies that investigate the fundamental motives behind the individual’s propensity to engage in WOM communication as a function of individual characteristics. The results of this study provide some prescriptive guidance to help companies target appropriate consumers to increase the effectiveness of WOM communication. In addition, this study explores the effect of individual and contextual differences on consumers’ willingness to engage in different types of WOM communication.

The purpose of this study was to examine social comparison orientation on Instagram as it relates to self-esteem and state anxiety. One hundred and ninety-six young adults (ages 18-30) who use Instagram at least once a week completed scales measuring social comparison orientation, self-esteem, and state anxiety before being randomly assigned to one of two Instagram feed conditions—one that displayed non-celebrity photos and the other that displayed celebrity photos. Participants were then post-tested using the same self-esteem and state anxiety scales. Information about Instagram use, information about participants’ feelings toward the feeds, and demographic characteristics were also collected. It was expected that participants with high social comparison orientations (SCOs) would experience greater decreases in self-esteem and greater increases in state anxiety than participants with low SCOs across both conditions. Additionally, it was expected that all participants, regardless of SCO, would experience a greater decrease in self-esteem and a greater increase in state anxiety after looking at photos of non-celebrities in comparison to looking at photos of celebrities. Findings were insignificant, indicating that using Instagram may not be detrimental to mental wellbeing. A second follow-up experiment found a relationship between SCO and state anxiety, with higher SCO being related to a greater decrease in anxiety.

Contrast Ces travaux abordent la question de l'impact des comparaisons ascendantes imposées sur l'auto-évaluation, ainsi que leurs conséquences en termes d'allocation de ressources attentionnelles et d'investissement dans la tâche. Nous défendons la thèse selon laquelle lorsqu'autrui représente un standard, la comparaison ascendante serait menaçante alors que lorsqu'il représente un but, la comparaison ascendante ne serait plus menaçante. Dans une première partie, nous allons donc tester l'hypothèse selon laquelle la comparaison ascendante peut menacer l'auto-évaluation. Nous présenterons cinq études qui démontrent les conséquences attentionnelles de la comparaison ascendante et la nécessité d'avoir recours à la notion de menace de l'auto-évaluation pour rendre compte de ces effets. Dans une seconde partie, nous argumenterons qu'un état d'approche transmet une impression permettant d'activer autrui comme but. Nous testerons cette hypothèse dans cinq études dans lesquelles nous montrerons qu'un état d'approche, d'une part, a un impact positif sur l'auto-évaluation et sur l'investissement dans la tâche et, d'autre part, favorise l'inclusion de la représentation d'autrui dans la représentation du soi. Dans l'ensemble, ces travaux contribuent à éclaircir les différentes façons de réagir à une comparaison ascendante en pointant, d'une part, les conséquences de la comparaison ascendante et, d'autre part, un déterminant crucial des effets de la comparaison ascendante : l'état d'approche. / This research deals with how people react to imposed upward social comparison. More specially, it questions the consequences of these comparisons on self-evaluation and how attentional resources are allocated. We defend the following thesis: when others are perceived as a standard, upward comparison threatens self-evaluation while when others are perceived as a goal, upward comparison will no longer be threatening and can be regarded as a source of self-improvement. In the first part of this work, we will argue that upward comparison can threaten self-evaluation. We will present five studies shedding light on attentional consequences of upward comparison and pointing the need to take self-evaluative threat into account in this research domain. In the second part of this work, we will argue that a state of approach conveys a feeling activating others as a goal. We will test this hypothesis in five studies by showing that, in one hand, a state of approach influences positively selfevaluation and task investment, and, on the other hand, its leads individuals to include upward comparison target's representation into the self representation. Taken together, these studies shed light on the different reactions to upward comparison, pointing out the consequences of this comparison and by identifying a crucial determinant of these effects: a state of approach.

A comparação social é um elemento ubíquo na sociedade, na qual os indivíduos, consciente ou inconscientemente, utilizam emoções, habilidades e opiniões dos demais para se avaliarem, se aprimorarem ou se promoverem. Por sua constante presença nas relações interpessoais e na vida das pessoas, a comparação social tem sido investigada e reconhecida a partir de uma ampla gama de consequências como emoções, julgamentos, atitudes e comportamento, e dentro deste último o comportamento de consumo. Para a melhor compreensão e aplicação da comparação social para a área de marketing, no entanto, é fundamental entender que suas consequências não ocorrem de maneira homogênea e o que influencia nessa heterogeneidade. Diante disso, esta pesquisa foi desenvolvida, buscando investigar como elementos individuais, como os valores pessoais, e variáveis associadas às relações sociais, como a sensação de poder, podem atuar no fenômeno da comparação social e em suas consequências, buscando assim contribuir para o maior reconhecimento teórico e prático deste fenômeno. Foi delimitado como campo de estudo a comparação social estética devido aos impactos psicológicos e sociais que este campo possui nos indivíduos, principalmente nas mulheres, sendo estas delimitadas como a população desta pesquisa. A partir da realização de três estudos empíricos, utilizando os métodos survey e experimental, foi possível comprovar a moderação dos valores de autopromoção e da sensação de poder na comparação social estética. Os valores de autopromoção exercem um impacto positivo na comparação social, estando correlacionados positivamente com a orientação que os indivíduos têm em se compararem, assim como estão associados com as consequências psicológicas geradas a partir da comparação. A sensação de poder, por sua vez, apresentou um impacto negativo sobre a comparação social estética, minimizando suas consequências psicológicas. A partir desta pesquisa buscou-se contribuir para a teoria da comparação social, abordando-a a partir da visão ainda pouco explorada do fenômeno de comparação como bietápico e, assim, cooperar para minimizar a existente carência de poder preditivo que a comparação social sofre, a qual limita o reconhecimento do seu papel central para as ciências sociais e para a área de marketing. Juntamente a isso pretendeu-se propor novas possíveis estratégias que possam minimizar os efeitos negativos da comparação social estética imposta pela mídia na forma como as mulheres se percebem. / Social comparison is an ubiquitous element in society, where individuals consciously or unconsciously use others emotions, skills and opinions to evaluate, to promote or to improve themselves. For its continuous presence in interpersonal relations and in people's lives, the social comparison has been investigated and recognized for a wide range of consequences such as emotions, judgments, attitudes and behavior, and also consumption behavior. To improve the comprehension and application of social comparison to the marketing area it is necessary to understand that its consequences are not homogeneous through the individuals, and what can impact this heterogeneity. Considering that, this research was developed in order to investigate how individual elements, such as personal values, and variables associated with social relations, such as the power sense, can influence the phenomenon of social comparison and its consequences. By this, we expect to contribute to the improvement of theoretical and practical recognition of social comparison phenomenon. It was delimitated as a research field the aesthetics social comparison considering its psychological e social consequences to humans, specially women, being this gender the target population of this research. Through three empirical studies, one survey and two experimental studies, it was possible to prove the moderation of self-promotion values and the power sense at aesthetics social comparison. The self-promotion values had a positive impact at social comparison, firstly by its positive correlation with social comparison orientation, and second by influencing the intensity of psychological consequences of social comparison. The power sense, on the other hand, had a negative impact on the aesthetic social comparison, minimizing its psychological consequences. This research aimed to contribute to the theory of social comparison, addressing it from the still underexplored vision of social comparison as a two-stage phenomenon, and thus cooperate to minimize the existing lack of predictive power that this phenomenon suffers, limiting its recognition as a central role in the social sciences and in marketing field. Related to this, it was proposed new strategies that can be used to minimize the negative effects of aesthetic social comparison imposed by the media in the way women perceive themselves.

abstract: This dissertation explores the determinants of Chief Executive Officer (CEO) perquisites, i.e., nonmonetary compensation offered to particular employees and not essential to the accomplishment of a CEO’s duties. While the current CEO perquisite literature has focused on understanding the economic determinants of CEO perquisites, I study the social-psychological determinants of perquisites. Specifically, I propose that organizational status is positively associated with CEO perquisites. The status literature suggests that high-status organizations derive benefits from status and status signals, while agency theory proposes that perquisites are a way for CEOs to extract private rents. Therefore, I posit that for high-status organizations, the benefits derived from certain CEO perquisites may negate the costs associated with those perquisites. I examine a specific CEO perquisite: the mandatory use of corporate aircraft for personal travel. Prior research and the popular press suggest that this perquisite is often seen not only as a status signal but also as an agency cost. Accordingly, I hypothesize that higher status organizations and organizations with higher status directors are more likely than lower status organizations or organizations with lower status directors to mandate their CEOs to use corporate aircraft for personal travel. I also propose that the effect is stronger for low- or high-status organizations than for middle-status organizations. In addition, I hypothesize five contingencies moderating the above relationships. I examine hypothesized relationships using a sample of S&P 500 organizations, and I find support for many of my hypotheses. This dissertation contributes to both status and executive compensation literature. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Business Administration 2019