Parents are considered to be important and indispensable stakeholders in education. Research shows that parental involvement in the education of their children is a crucial matter as it contributes directly to the learners’ academic achievement. This study intended to investigate the possible effects of parents’ literacy levels on their involvement in the education and the academic achievement of their children. Approached from a constructivist point of view, the study specifically focused on schools situated in the rural areas of the Qwa Qwa region. The rationale for choosing the particular geographical focus was that it is frequently argued that learners educated in rural environments often find themselves in disadvantaged situations since their parents are financially poor, that they lack proper formal education and thus have low literacy levels, and that they are seldom involved in their children’s education and academic achievement. In order to direct the study towards the intended purpose, a literature study was undertaken to explore the phenomena of literacy and parental involvement. Literacy, its occurrence in the South African context and how parents’ literacy levels relate to learner performance were examined. In addition, parental involvement was investigated by considering the parents’ role as primary educators and by highlighting the importance of parental involvement in terms of its benefits towards children’s education and academic performance. By means of a qualitative case study, individual and focus group interviews were conducted with purposeful selected Head of Departments (HODs), parents and learners from four conveniently selected intermediate schools in the Thabo Mofutsanyana District of the Qwa Qwa region. In total four HODs, 14 parent couples and 14 Grade 6 learners participated in the research. The results of this research show that the parents’ literacy levels indeed affect their involvement in their children’s education and academic achievement. Parents with low literacy levels appear that they want to be involved but that they find it difficult. Most parents with low literacy levels are not able to assist their children with schoolwork but depend on others, such as older siblings to assist. Furthermore the research reveals that parents do not often visit schools voluntarily but that they rather do so by invitation. However, relations between schools and parents appear to be healthy and the attitudes of parents towards their children’s education are positive. Although parents with low literacy levels cannot always assist their children with their schoolwork, they motivate and value the education of their children since they realize that education remains the vehicle for social-economic development in any society. / Thesis (M.Ed.)--North-West University, Vaal Triangle Campus, 2011

Physical activity (PA) and physical fitness (PF) are regarded as important elements of a healthy lifestyle (Sallis & Patrick, 1994:304; Saxena et al., 2002; Beets & Pitetti, 2004:1796). Literature revealed that adolescents are more inclined to be physically inactive and spent time on sedentary activities, such as watching television (Wang & Biddle, 2001:1; Marshall et al., 2002:413; Neumark-Sztainer et al., 2003:803; Hancox et al., 2004; Malina et al., 2004:479). Adolescents from low socio-economic communities also experience various other barriers, such as performing income-generating activities and family duties (Prista et al., 1997:455; Kriska, 2000:50), time constraints (Saxena et al., 2002), too much homework (Deflandre et al., 2004:31) and distances from sports facilities (Nahas et al., 2003), which prevent them from being physically active. Stunting, defined as height growth retardation, is also a condition that is associated with poor socio-economic status (SES) and various studies showed an occurrence of up to 19% in children (Kruger et al., 2004:566; Cameron et al., 2005:414). Although different intervention studies were conducted to improve stunting, none were based on physical activity intervention (Lunn, 2002:109; Walsh et al., 2002:6). The first aim of the study was to determine the physical fitness status and physical activity levels of 15-year-old adolescents from a previously disadvantaged community. Secondly, to determine what factors would be regarded as either barriers or motivators for 15-year-old adolescents from this previously disadvantaged community for improving their physical activity and participation in sport and for determining their perception of their own physical activity level. The next aim was to analyse the physical activity choices and aerobic endurance of these 15-year-old adolescents and the effect of a physical activity intervention programme (PAIP) on their physical activity choices and levels and aerobic endurance. The last aim of the study was to examine the effect of a PAIP on the physical fitness of stunted 15-year-old adolescents. Two high schools (an intervention school [school 1] and a control school [school 2]) in a previously disadvantaged community near Potchefstroom, South Africa, participated in this study. The learners in the control school had a slightly better socio-economic status, determined by income per capita. All Grade 8 learners in School 1 and 2 were requested to participate in the research. Two hundred and fifty-two (N=252) Grade 8 learners (116 boys and 136 girls) in School 1 and N=66 Grade 8 learners (21 boys and 45 girls) in School 2 parents/guardians granted informed consent to participate in the study. The PAIP was conducted for an hour twice a week for 19 weeks directly after school hours for learners from School 1. No physical education classes or organised sport were part of the school curriculum during the intervention. A pre-test/post-test study design was used. Standard anthropometrical procedures were used to determine body mass, stature and four skin folds. The Fitnessgram (Meredith & Welk, 1999:9) and additional fitness tests were used to determine the physical fitness levels of the participants. The Previous Day Physical Activity Recall (PDPAR) (Trost et al., 1999:342) was used to determine the physical activity levels and television watching hours during one day of the week and weekend respectively. Biological maturity status was determined by means of the 5-stage Tanner scale (Faulkner, 1996:237). The questionnaire of Rowland (1990) which deals with barriers to physical activity and participation in sport was also used. A few of the questions were adjusted and additional questions from Meredith and Welk (1999:50) were added. Demographic information on the SES (income per capita, housing, water and electricity) of the participants, as well as information on how far learners walked to school and how long it took, was also determined. The data was analysed by means of descriptive statistics, correlational analysis, frequency and rank ordering, t-testing followed by Tuckey post hoc analysis, One-and Two-way Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) and Tuckey-Kramer multiple comparisons. The Statistica for Windows and SAS computer programmes were used to analyse the data according to the above-mentioned aims of the study. A p-value smaller or equal to 0.05 was accepted as significant. The results of the study indicated higher mean physical fitness values in the intervention group compared to the control group. Both boys and girls in the intervention group and boys in the control group were moderately active, while only the girls in the control group showed low levels of physical activity. Longer commuting distances were found in the intervention group, while more hours of television watching were found in the control group. The aerobic fitness, flexibility and body composition of group 1 and 2 fell within the healthy fitness zone (HFZ), while their strength fell outside the healthy fitness zone, and showed negative relationships with aerobic fitness and flexibility. Television viewing time and commuting distances to school appeared to have a moderate influence on the moderate to low physical activity levels of the total group, and physical activity showed a relationship with higher fitness values. Regarding the second aim, too much homework, lack of money and family responsibilities were indicated as barriers to being physically active, while encouragement of parents and friends to participate with, were found to be motivational factors. After participation in the physical activity programme it was found that the learners' perceptions had changed and they had better knowledge of the intensity of physical activity. The results analysed for the third aim of the study indicated disappointing results regarding the effect of the intervention programme and no significant improvement was found, because of poor attendance to the programme. The learners had to be categorised in different attendance groups of the intervention programme. The group with the highest attendance (>70%) of the programme seemed to sustain their aerobic fitness the best. From the activities that were included in the physical activity programme, it was established that netball and soccer had a small effect on the physical activity choices of the group after participating in the programme. The results of the fourth aim revealed that stunted girls, who participated regularly in the programme, showed better improvement in aerobic fitness and hand grip strength after participating in the activity programme compared to non-stunted girls, while the lean body mass and flexibility on the right side of the body had improved in stunted boys. The stunted boys and girls also showed improvement in different physical fitness variables compared to non-stunted boys and girls. It can be concluded from the results of this study that participating in an after school physical activity programme is not the answer to improving the physical activity of children living in low SES environments. Such programmes are, however, needed but should be implemented during school hours. The physical activity programme, however, had a positive effect on both the physical fitness (excluding strength) and aerobic fitness as well as on their perception of physical activity and physical fitness of the adolescents, and showed some effect on the fitness of stunted adolescents. Intervention strategies should however be developed to overcome the barriers that prevented children from low SES communities from being physically active. It is also important to empower these adolescents with knowledge and skills to enable them to maintain and increase their physical activity levels. Key words: Physical fitness, physical activity, adolescence, socio-economic status, boys and girls, barriers, motivators, stunting / Thesis (Ph.D. (Human Movement Science))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2008.

Thesis (M.Sc. (Physiology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2009.

Thesis (M.Com. (Tourism))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2009.

The social and economic contribution of tourism to local communities is now being recognised as one of the most vital aspects for the tourism industry. Literature on national parks emphasises the importance of relations between parks and communities, as well as knowledge and understanding of the social and economic impacts of parks on the development of local communities. Although national parks are seen as major tourism assets and the vital role that they play in adjacent communities is understood, still little is known about the socio-economic contribution of these parks to their respective local economies and communities. Socio-economic impact study is important since it provides information that can influence a community's attitudes and perceptions and accordingly, its behaviour, which may create a cohesive society which is important for the success of national parks. The primary goal-of this study was to determine the socio-economic impact of the Wilderness National Park (WNP) on the community of Wilderness. To achieve the above goal, secondary objectives were set, namely: to determine the socio-economic benefits of Wilderness National Park, to determine the social impact of the WNP on the community of Wilderness, to determine the length of residency as an influential factor in the social impact of tourism and to draw conclusions and make recommendations based on the results of the study. Three surveys were conducted (as quantitative research): a community survey (101 questionnaires), a business survey in Wilderness (22 questionnaires) and a tourist survey (85 questionnaires) of tourists visiting the Wilderness National Park. The research outcome contains two components: Article 1 (Chapter 2), a socio-economic impact study (where all three surveys were used); and Article 2 (Chapter 3), a social impact study of length of residency (where only the community survey was used). Research for both articles was undertaken at Wilderness. Article 1 is titled: "The socio-economic benefits of Wilderness National Park". The main purpose of this article was to determine the socio-economic benefits of the WNP to the community of Wilderness. Results indicated that the Park has an impact in terms of production, income generation and employment, and that it is also achieving its goal with regard to conservation, creating economic opportunities and involving the community of Wilderness. Only 24% of businesses indicated that their existence is due to the Wilderness National Park. However, guesthouses and Bed and Breakfast establishments indicated that they benefit most from the Park since 62,1% of the accommodation units' turnover is due to the Park. Food and restaurants indicated that 7,5% of their business is due to the Park, while tourism services estimated this contribution at 33,3%. The results confirm that the total economic leakage percentage is well above 50%, indicating that the urban areas face high leakages. However, in terms of employment creation, the fact that 100% of all workers live in the area under consideration is an indication that the benefits of the Park reach the community members. Overall, the results indicated that the total impact of the Wilderness National Park on the local economy was R12,8 million and that it is an effect of the total spending by visitors. Aspects driving the social value/benefits include improvement of the area; that the Park leads to an increased awareness of nature and wildlife; that it preserves local culture and nature; that the appearance of the area has improved; and that the Park provides the community with an opportunity to visit natural areas. Results further indicated that the Park has a greater social impact/benefit than economic impact/benefit because it is situated in an affluent community. Article 2 is titled: "Length of residency as an influential factor in the social impact of tourism". The main aim of this article was to determine if length of residency influences the social impact of the influence on the community of Wilderness. It further showed that length of residency helps predict positive and negative perceptions of the residents in terms of the environmental, social and economic aspects of tourism. It was found that, since to the establishment of the WNP, the residents which have been living in Wilderness for a shorter period of time indicated that they experienced the social aspects positively, the economic aspects both as equally positive and negative, but regard the environmental aspects as more positive than negative, whereas the residents that have been living in Wilderness for a longer period indicated that they experienced the environmental aspects positively, the social aspects more negatively, and a more negative than positive experience regarding the economic aspects. Thus, length of residency is definitely an influential factor in the social impact of tourism on the community of Wilderness. The results of both articles confirm that the community felt that the Park does have a positive to very positive effect on the quality of the community and has a greater social, rather than economic, impact on the community of Wilderness. The results indicated that length of residency does help predict perceptions of social impacts and is thus definitely an influential factor of the social impact of tourism on the community of Wilderness. This study contributes to the literature available on the (1) socio-economic impacts/benefits of urban parks (WNP), and (2) length of residency as an influential factor in social impacts of tourism. / Thesis (M.A. (Tourism))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2010.

Urbanisation has increased tremendously over the last 60 years so that more than 50 per cent of the world population now live in cities. This is especially true for in developed countries, but it is expected that developing countries will take the lead in future urban population growth. This increasing trend of urbanisation has severe consequences for the environment, as it fragments and changes natural areas and alter environmental conditions. This has compelled scientists from many different disciplines to focus on the inclusion of humans into ecology as a driving force of change to create a better understanding of urban ecosystems. The diversity of fauna and flora in the urban environment provides a myriad of ecosystem goods (such as food and fuel) and services (e.g. cleaning the air and reducing noise levels). Apart from these tangible benefits, urban green space also provides recreational, educational and social benefits to urban inhabitants. A surprisingly substantial proportion (21‒36 %) of the total urban green space that produces these ecosystem goods and services is located in private yards. This portrays the importance of the flora of this land-use type, but very little is known about garden flora and its potential for conservation. The determinants of diversity and species richness in gardens were found to be different than for semi-natural ecosystems, because of the high anthropogenic influence. One of these is the socio-economic status of the inhabitants. People with higher socio-economic status were found to harbour more diverse species assemblages in their gardens than those of lower socio-economic status. This phenomenon was termed the “luxury concept”. In the Tlokwe City Municipality (TCM), the legacy effects of apartheid created a steep socio-economic gradient as a result of the inequitable distribution of economic, natural and social resources. The aims of this study were to gain information on the flora that is present in the domestic gardens of the TCM and to determine if socio-economic status (SES), a management index (MI) and demographic factors influences the distribution of plant species between these gardens. A total of 835 plant species were recorded from 100 domestic gardens and the majority were of alien origin. This large number of species included some Red Data species, invasive alien species and also many utilitarian species. This portrays gardens as important ex situ conservation habitats, but simultaneously it could also threaten the integrity of our natural ecosystems through the distribution of alien invasive species. The gamma, alpha and beta diversity were determined across five SES classes to describe the patterns of domestic garden plant species diversity in the TCM. In accordance with other studies, correlations showed that the SES of the inhabitants affected the plant species distribution in the study area. This was especially true for the distribution of alien species that are cultivated for their ornamental value. More species were found in areas of high SES than those of lower SES. The other aspect that influenced the distribution of plant species in these gardens were the MI, although this was to a lesser extent than the effect of SES. The confirmation of differences along the SES gradient could be utilised by urban planners and policy makers to correct this imbalance through the provision of urban green spaces where it is needed most. / Thesis (M. Environmental Sciences and Management)--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2011.

This study aims to develop a method to investigate the relationship between socio-economic status of village settlements and some topographic variables using geographical information systems (GIS) and spatial statistical methods. The study area is &Ccedil / ankiri province, a mountainous region that lays at the northeast of Ankara. 331 villages represented by areal units are used in this study. 195 variables are used to extract a single socio-economic status indicator. First, all the variables are divided under three groups, namely economic, social and service. Principal Components Analysis (PCA) is used to construct an index indicating socio-economic status. The parameters that represent natural environment are / mean elevation, mean slope, mean aspect and the ratio of high quality soil in the total area, for each settlement unit. The data is visualized by choropleth, cartogram and 3D techniques. Then it is explored by using correlograms, spatial moving averages and geographically weighted regression (GWR). Finally linear non-spatial regression and spatial regression methods are utilized in order to establish a relation between the socio-economic status and environmental parameters.

This thesis is an assessment of socio-economic development of Southeastern Anatolia Region of Turkey after GAP Project. The aim of this study is to analyze and discuss impacts of the GAP Project and to evaluate achievements of the most important sustainable development project of Turkey. Several social and economic indicators, like demographic structure, education, health, financial figures, industry, agriculture and energy, have been analyzed and evaluated in order to obtain reliable and realistic conclusions. The main conclusion of this thesis states that Southeastern Anatolia Region has developed both socially and economically with the impacts of GAP Project. Rapid economic growth, increased agricultural and industrial activities are the evidences of this development. However, another conclusion of the study indicates that the achievements of GAP cannot ensure the expected socio-economic development of the Region. This conclusion shows the necessity of questioning the success of the governance and execution of the GAP Project.

The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of interscholastic sports participation on academic achievement and behavioural development of junior high grades students of basic education schools in Turkey. The subjects of this study were 651 eight grade students from fifteen basic education schools which are randomly selected during 2004-2005 academic year in NevSehir. Required data were collected by student&amp / #8217 / s data record folders (SPDRF), athletics participation licenses, high school entrance exam result sheets, provided by the schools administrations. First of all descriptive statistics were used to define demographic variables of this study. Second, one-way analysis of variance (Tukey HSD) and t-test (Pearson correlation) were used to asses the relationship between demographic variables and interscholastic sports participation on grade point average, high school entrance exam scores, attendance rate and behavioural development of students. Third correlation coefficients were applied to indicate the relation between independent variables and interscholastic sports participation. Finally regression analysis was conducted to understand how well the independent variables predict the academic achievement and behavioural development levels. Results indicate that interscholastic sports participations have positive effects on grade point average, attendance rate, individual development and high school entrance exam scores. Moreover demographic variables of students such as family income, family size, parents education level, family configuration and interscholastic sports participation are the determinants of academic success, behavioral development level, attendance rate, and high school attendance exam scores.

The increasing prevalence of overweight and obesity in young people is a major global public health concern, especially in developed countries. In Australia, studies in 2001 have suggested that 20% of boys and 21.5% of girls aged 7-15 years were overweight or obese, while in 1985 the figures were 10.7% and 11.8%, respectively. In the short-term, overweight and obese children and adolescents suffer from both adverse physical and psychological consequences. The most significant long-term consequence of childhood obesity is its persistence into adulthood, along with numerous associated health risks. A number of studies have shown that there is an association between being an overweight child and subsequent adulthood obesity. In general, childhood overweight and obesity is a multifactorial disease and its development is due to multiple interactions between genes and environment. A number of risk factors such as socioeconomic status, dietary patterns, and physical activity have been frequently identified as contributors to its development. However, the results of recent studies provide conflicting evidence. The statistical limitations also make it difficult to compare the studies on childhood obesity between countries. In addition, existing research in Australia that examines the contribution of different risk factors to childhood obesity is limited. There are no published data on the relationship between overweight/obesity, dietary patterns, and physical activity/inactivity in Australian children and adolescents. This study examined the influences of household income, dietary factors, physical activity/inactivity and ethnicity on overweight and obesity among Australian children and adolescents. It also explored the relationship between self-reported weight and height to actual weight and height in older Australian adolescents in order to clarify the accuracy of self-reported data among Australian youth. Data from the two national cross-sectional surveys, the 1995 Australian National Health Survey (NHS) and the 1995 National Nutrition Survey (NNS) were analysed to explore the influences of household income, intake of energy and fat and percentage of energy from fat on childhood obesity. The study focused on 1585 children and adolescents aged 7-15 years. These data were also used to examine the relationship of self-reported weight and height to measured weight and height in older adolescents. Additionally, another cross-sectional survey among a group of Australian primary school children from a multi-cultural school in southern Brisbane was undertaken as well as providing indicative data on the relationship of overweight/obesity to physical activity levels and ethnicity, and to provide a protocol on the methodology and practicality of measuring physical activity level in such a school setting. The results suggested that boys from households with low incomes were more likely to be overweight or obese compared with those from households with higher incomes. Having parents, especially mothers, who were overweight or obese increased the risk of children being overweight or obese. The results do not provide evidence that there are statistically significantly differences in the average intake of energy and fat and percentage of energy from fat between non-overweight and overweight or obese boys and girls. The correct classification of weight or obesity from self-reported height and weight by Australian older adolescents was about 70%, bias in reporting weight and height is higher among overweight or obese older adolescents than non-overweight counterparts. In addition, preliminary, indicative data from the pilot study on the relationship between body mass index (BMI) and physical activity in 10-12 year old Australian school children from a multi-cultural school revealed that the average daily physical activity level (PAL) was 2.3 Metabolic Equivalents (METs) when the PAL was measured using self-reported activity diary. The proportion of light, moderate and heavy PAL was 2.9%, 20.4% and 76.7% in children, respectively. Additionally no ethnic differences in the prevalence of overweight /obesity was found. There was no statistically significant difference in average daily TV view times between non-overweight and overweight or obese boys and girls. The average daily number of steps measured using pedometer in the weekdays was 16,505 in boys and 12766 in girls. Most of boys (94.0%) have a medium and over level of steps taken daily while nearly one-third of the girls had not reached the minimum level in the number of steps for optimal health. However it must be noted this school-based study was a small cross-sectional survey in a single school. The results should be viewed as indicative, not generalisable. The study does not provide any longitudinal data on physical activity patterns and the trends in relationship to body mass index. In spite of the limitations of this study, it did provide some preliminary data on PAL and its relationship to overweight/ obesity among young Australian schoolchildren from diverse cultural backgrounds. Most importantly, this pilot study has provided a protocol on the methodology and practicality of measuring physical activity levels of children using self-reported activity diaries and pedometers in a multicultural school setting. A number of strategies for the prevention and treatment of childhood overweight and obesity are discussed. In future studies, a population-based and randomly selected sample would ensure findings that are more representative of general Australian children, and the longitudinal studies would help to define the association between the risk factors and childhood obesity, as well as enabling conclusions on causality to be drawn.