Bakgrund: I dagens samhälle blir ungdomar allt mer fysiskt inaktiva, samtidigt som hälsoklyftorna bland befolkningen fortsätter att öka. Den socioekonomiska statusen är en bidragande faktor till den ojämlikhet som finns idag och det är en av de faktorer som har störst påverkar för individers förutsättningar och möjligheter att uppnå en god och jämlik hälsa. Syfte: Syftet med studien är att undersöka huruvida ungdomars fysiska aktivitetsnivå skiljer sig åt beroende på kön och socioekonomisk status. Metod: För att besvara studiens syfte tillämpades en kvantitativ metod med en tvärsnittsdesign. Datainsamlingen genomfördes med hjälp av en enkätundersökning där urvalet bestod av 97 gymnasieungdomar på en skola i Eskilstuna. Data analyserades i SPSS genom frekvenstabeller och chi2-test. Resultat: Resultatet visar att majoriteten av ungdomarna inte uppnår den dagliga rekommendationen om fysisk aktivitet på minst 60 minuter om dagen men att män har en högre fysisk aktivitetsnivå än kvinnor. Resultatet påvisade ingen signifikant skillnad gällande ungdomars fysiska aktivitetsnivå utifrån deras socioekonomiska status. Slutsats: Slutsatserna är att det finns en skillnad gällande ungdomars fysiska aktivitetsnivå beroende på kön men att det inte finns någon skillnad utifrån deras socioekonomiska status. / Background: In today’s society, adolescents are becoming increasingly physically inactive, while health disparities continue to increase among the population. Socioeconomic status is a contributing factor to the inequality that exists today and it’s one of the factors that have the most impact on individuals' conditions and opportunities to achieve a good and equal health. Aim: The aim of the study is to investigate whether adolescents physical activity levels differ depending on gender and socioeconomic status. Method: To answer the study’s aim, a quantitative method was applied with a cross-sectional design. The data were collected through a survey and the sample consisted of 97 high school students at a school in Eskilstuna. Data were analyzed in SPSS through frequency tables and chi-square tests. Results: The results show that the majority of adolescents don’t reach the daily recommendation of physical activity for at least 60 minutes a day, but men have a higher level of physical activity in comparison with women. The results showed no significant difference regarding the level of physical activity among adolescents based on their socioeconomic status. Conclusion: The conclusions are that there’s a difference in adolescents’ level of physical activity depending on gender, but there’s no difference based on their socioeconomic status.

Maternal mortality is a critical area of concern globally, despite the availability of accessible preventive measures. The role of sociodemographic and service delivery factors in maternal mortality in the Accra Metropolitan Area of Ghana are important to examine. As part of the United Nations (UN) Millennium Campaign, the UN implemented 8 Millennium Development Goals (MDGs); maternal mortality reduction by 75% between 1990 and 2015 was among the fundamental MDGs to be achieved by 2015. The purpose of this case-control study was to use secondary data to assess the relationships between sociodemographic variables, service delivery factors, and maternal mortality among 8,171 women of reproductive age (15-45 years) living in the Greater Accra metropolitan area in Ghana. The health belief model and social cognitive theory provided the theoretical framework to interpret the study findings. Particularly, income (p = .023), primary (p = .035) and secondary (p = .002) education, and health insurance (p = .008) were significantly associated with maternal-related mortality. However, for survival outcome, health insurance (p = .003), prenatal care (p = .001), and presence of a skilled attendant at delivery (p = .020) were significant factors. These study results provide support for the significant effects of sociodemographic and service delivery factors on maternal mortality and survivorship in the Greater Accra metropolitan area in Ghana. The results of this study could enhance educational and outreach programs designed to lower maternal mortality rate. Further research needs to be done to advance knowledge and practice in health delivery services and public health education with respect to the importance of sociodemographic and service delivery characteristics.

The purpose of this study is to create a deeper understanding on how brands today arepart of culture, creating meaning and effects, persuading customers through hidden messages and cultural communication codes. The starting point for my studies has been a European approach, with a German brand as empirical material. As a visual communicator it is especially important to critically understand how each element in an advertising campaigncreates meaning and therewith influences consumers unconsciously. My study has the ambition to research how luxury products are portrayed by examining visual markers for taste and exclusivity that indicate that the Jil Sander advertising campaign (2018) is directed towards members of a higher social strata. This has been done by using a qualitative visual image analysis based on social semiotics. Representation, taste, status and social milieus are the theoretical key terms in this study which are linked to my image analysis which shows that the characters are members of the same scene belonging tothe same social milieu, were they share social norms, dress codes, linguistic codes such assigns and symbols. All of them are visual markers of a higher social class, taste and capital.

A concerning public health issue in America is about food deserts urban and rural communities that lack grocery retailers that offer affordable, nutritious, and diverse foods. Empirical evidence has shown significant associations between neighborhood disadvantage/disorder risk factors of high poverty and high percentages of ethnic minority residents with presence/ absence of healthy food retailers in food deserts. The purpose of this quantitative correlational study, framed by the disparities in food safety conceptual model, was to examine if county-level poverty, number of African American residents, number of elderly (i.e., age 65 or older) residents, vehicle ownership, and crime rates were significantly associated with presence/absence of healthy food retail environments in a stratified random sample of 160 Mississippi Delta Region counties. Variables were measured using SPSS 25.0 data set from federal sources. Data were analyzed using binary logistic regression. Findings indicated that the percentage of households below poverty level was significantly associated with absence of healthy food retailers, (Wald X2 = 7.62, p = .006). Logistic regression findings further showed that the county percentage of households with at least one vehicle was significantly associated with the presence of healthy food retailers, (Wald X2= 8.75, p = .003). As a result of this study, residents of the Mississippi Delta Region (MDR) may begin to petition their local, county, and state governments to enhance access to healthy foods, and in turn, such government institutions may develop programs and initiatives that help to make healthy foods affordable.

El presente proyecto de plan de negocio tiene como objetivo implementar un colegio en Villa el Salvador, el cual nos muestra que, según el análisis de mercado, nuestra decisión estratégica permitirá explotar las actuales y recientes necesidades educativas de las nuevas familias emergentes con mayor capacidad adquisitiva y mayores factores aspiracionales de crecimiento socioeconómico. Por lo que existe una conveniente oportunidad de negocio, la misma que se ve fortalecida por la cercanía de nuestra sede a los nuevos centros de desarrollo urbano y a los polos productivos de la zona. El nombre elegido para el colegio es Terra Nova, el cual ofrecerá una moderna infraestructura, equipamiento vanguardista, con convenios para segundo idioma e informática, áreas multifuncionales, talleres, formación técnica extracurricular para secundaria y capacidad para 680 alumnos, ofreciendo una educación de alta calidad con una metodología basada en el aprendizaje por proyectos (ABP), todo ello concreta una sinergia diferenciadora y altamente apreciada en el nivel socioeconómico C – D. Para la ejecución del presente proyecto se requerirá una inversión de S/ 8,168,595, financiado por los accionistas y de una entidad financiera. Los valores positivos obtenidos mediante el análisis financiero nos permiten asegurar que el proyecto es viable y atractivo, pues supera las expectativas de los accionistas y se muestra sostenible más allá del período analizado de 10 años. / This business plan project aims at implementing a school in Villa El Salvador. According to the market analysis, our strategic decision will exploit the current and recent educational needs of new emerging families with greater monetary capacity, and greater aspirational factors of socioeconomic growth. Therefore, it is a business opportunity, which is strengthened by the proximity of our headquarters to the new urban development centers and the productive poles of the area. The name chosen for the school is Terra Nova, which will offer a modern infrastructure, avant-garde equipment, with conventions for second language and computer labs, multifunctional areas, workshops, extracurricular technical training for secondary students, and a capacity for 680 students. Offering a high quality education with a methodology based on Project based learning (PBL), all these form a differentiating synergy, which is highly appreciated in the socioeconomic levels C and D. For the execution of this project, an investment of S / 8,168,595 will be required, financed by the shareholders and a financial entity. The positive values obtained through financial analysis allow us to ensure that the project is viable and attractive, since it exceeds the expectations of shareholders and is sustainable beyond the analyzed period of 10 years. / Trabajo de investigación

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With yearly rates ranking clearly above world average in Europe, suicide constitutes a substantial public health problem. Because of that, prevention has become a major concern for German mental health institutions. A requirement for successful prevention strategies is to address all key factors that contribute to suicidality. It is highly relevant in this respect that suicidal behaviour itself exhibits a social gradient: drawing on the relevant literature, low socioeconomic status (SES) and a high extent of social isolation (SI) are related to increased suicide risks (Lorant et al. 2005; Li et al. 2011; Qin et al. 2003; Agerbo et al. 2007). The purpose of this study was therefore to add to these findings and to further investigate associations of SES and SI with suicide in order to define starting points for public health interventions. It was consequently hypothesized that lower individual levels of SES and higher individual levels of SI are correlated with increased suicide rates. SI potentially compromises the perception of social support in stressful live events associated with low SES (Cohen et al. 2006; Kumari et al. 2010). Since such life events correlate with suicidal behavior (Beautrais et al. 1997; Cohen et al. 2019), the effects of low SES were further hypothesized to be aggravated in individuals with high SI levels (SES x SI interaction). In order to test the hypotheses, all 149.033 suicide deaths between 1997 and 2010 (T = 14 years) were extracted from the official German death record as coded by ICD categories E950 - E959 for 1997 and X60 - X84 for the years from 1998 onwards, respectively. Information on SES and SI was gained by merging the dataset with Germany’s main household survey, i.e. the Microcensus. In accordance with the existing literature, established indexes on occupational status (ISEI, Ganzeboom & Treiman 1996) and educational achievements (CASMIN, König et al. 1988) were applied as well as items on income, minor employment, unemployment, the number of received public transfers and the reception of social bene fits due to unemployment (ALG I/II) in order to capture SES. SI was proxied with variables measuring single marital status, living in a one-person-household and relocations throughout the year before the survey was conducted. Due to German data protection regulations that do not permit the analysis of death record data based on individual level information, suicide deaths were examined as aggregated rates at the level of N = 390 administrative districts. In order to deal with two problems associated with this kind of statistical analysis, Prentice and Sheppard’s model for aggregate data (1995) was applied accounting for potential estimation biases due to differences in baseline suicide rates between districts and between time periods. The model specification further corrected for spatial effect correlations. An important limitation to this procedure is that the estimates represent a blend of effects at the individual and district levels. However, an adequate solution is only available through the application of individual level data. The statistical analysis turned out the following results: The positive effect on suicide rates of unemployment and the negative effect of income as two out of seven SES proxies and the positive effect of living in a one-person-household as one out of three SI proxies validate the proposed hypotheses on the relations of SES and SI with suicide rates. Confirming the hypothesis on SI mediating SES effects, the model revealed positive effects on suicide rates of income decreases in single individuals. Likewise, we observed positive effects on district suicide rates for decreasing levels of CASMIN in district population shares who had relocated throughout the past year. In contradiction to the theoretical claims, however, increases in CASMIN scores were found to result in positive effects on suicide rates just as a history of relocation prior to suicide was related to decreasing suicide rates. Furthermore, decreases in income were found to result in negative effects on suicide rates in the district population of persons living in a one-person-household. The results indicating associations of SES and SI with increases in district suicide rates represent appropriate starting points for the definition of suicide prevention strategies. Thus, particularly the unemployed, individuals with low incomes, persons living in one-person-households and relocated individuals with lower educational levels should be targeted by public health interventions. Moreover, the observations of the present study clearly demonstrate the significance of longitudinal individual level data for public health policies. Respective research incorporating such data would permit a better understanding of the causal mechanisms resulting in suicidality and help to further investigate the robustness of the shown results. By this means, prevention strategies could be better adapted to the specfic needs of the individuals under concern. Regarding the findings contradicting the theoretical claims, it needs to be mentioned that associations of low SES and high SI levels with increases in suicide risks can not be ruled out at the individual level. Rather, the observed inconsistent effects might be attributable to differences in district compositions than to differences in characteristics of the respective subjects. Also a statistical separation of compositional effects from effects of individual traits would be made possible by including individual level data in future work.:Abbrevations II Tables II 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Suicide - A Global Health Burden 1 1.2 Risk Factors and Etiology of Suicide 1 1.3 Suicide Prevention 2 1.4 Social Disparities in Suicide 2 1.4.1 Socioeconomic Status 2 1.4.2 Social Isolation 3 1.4.3 Health Inequalities and Health Inequities 4 1.4.4 Causation and Selection 5 1.4.5 Individual Life Courses 7 1.5 Stress and Diathesis 8 1.5.1 Critical Life Events 9 1.6 Neurobiological Correlates of Suicidality 9 1.6.1 Neurobiological Correlates of SES and SI 10 1.7 SES, SI and Social Support 11 1.8 Aims of the Thesis 11 1.9 Methods 12 2 Original Publication 14 Summary 23 References 26 Supplementary Materials - Further Statistical Tests & Models 41 Structural Breaks in Suicide Numbers 41 Age- and Gender-Adjustment of District Suicide Rates 42 Alternate Model Specifications Anlagen i Erklärung über die eigenständige Abfassung der Arbeit i Spezifizierung des eigenen wissenschaftlichen Beitrags iii Danksagung iii

Swedish sports clubs are becoming more concerned with how to attract young people to participate in organized sports. Young people with low socio-economic status and individuals with ethnic background are especially in mind as it has become clear that these individuals are excluded in the various activities of sports clubs. The aim of this study was to examine the possible obstacles for young adolescents to participate in organized sports. By identifying the visible and invisible obstacles through a gender- and socio-cultural perspective the four research questions were examined. The questions concerned within this qualitative study was how accessibility was described by the respondents; how the obstacles to participate in organized sport were experienced by the respondents; how the difference in sport participation was explained by the respondents from a cultural and socio-economic perspective and; how the differences in sport participation were explained by the respondents from a gender perspective. Through six focus groups encompassing 16 individuals between the age of 14–20 years old a Bourdieu approach was applied in order to interpret the content of the responses. The results showed that the youth experienced obstacles to participate in sport in two different ways. One was described as the physical means of being able to get access to sport which was transportation facilities, sports fees and costs for equipment. The other form of obstacle was described as underlying factors such as norms and expectations regarding participation in organized sports and a lack of perceived sense of belonging. Cultural background and gender were discussed as the two most contributing factors as to why some of the youth are not participating in organized sports. Swedish sports clubs should focus on how to include the youth needs into their day-to-day work rather than ensuring their participation in their current offered activities.

The problem investigated in this study is that U.S. minority and low socioeconomic status (SES) student participation in advanced academic classes continues to lag behind that of Caucasian and economically advantaged students. The purpose of this project study was to investigate the participation gaps between minority and low SES students compared with non-minority and high SES students in advanced mathematics courses in the study district's middle school. The theoretical framework for the study was gap-analysis theory. A quantitative gap analysis of existing student test score data was conducted, utilizing a secondary analysis of existing Iowa Test of Basic Skills data from 347 middle school students, with 196 students classified as low SES and 129 as minority. Descriptive statistics and 2 one-sample chi square tests were used to examine differences by ethnicity and SES subgroups and to test whether the distributions of students who met the district's 70th-percentile cut-score were different than the hypothesized distribution of equal proportions. The results demonstrated significant enrollment gaps between minority and low SES students versus non-minority and high SES students. The study findings informed a policy recommendation project that offered suggestions for the current mathematics testing and enrollment program at the study site. Implications for social change include providing research-based findings to the administration at the local site on the enrollment gaps for minority and low SES students which may inform future decisions about enrollment policies for advanced mathematics courses.

Despite the availability of effective drugs to prevent malaria during pregnancy using intermittent preventive treatment with Sulfadoxine-Pyrimethamine or Fansidar and insecticide bed net, use of these methods are still little used in Sub-Saharan Africa, including Tanzania. As a result, many pregnant women are at risk of malaria consequences such as maternal anemia and low birth weight babies, which increase the rate of infant mortality. Data from the Demographic Health Survey for Tanzania HIV/AIDs and the Malaria Indicator Survey 2011-2012 were used in a cross-sectional design guided by the health belief model. Logistic regression examined the association between (a) preventive treatment-seeking behavior and (b) SES, malaria media exposure, knowledge of malaria signs and symptoms, perceived seriousness of malaria, and knowledge of malaria preventive measures. After controlling for transportation, family responsibility, and age, significant associations (p < 0.05) were found between SES, malaria media exposure, knowledge of malaria signs and symptom, perceived seriousness of malaria, knowledge of malaria preventive measures, and treatment-seeking behavior. This study contributes to positive social change by helping design and implement policies and programs to improve the knowledge of Tanzanian pregnant women about the risk of malaria infection and the benefits of preventive treatments. Interventions to reduce malaria infection during pregnancy will reduce the associated morbidity and mortality of both mothers and infants; as a result, families and communities will be healthier and prevent unnecessary medical cost of malaria.