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Introduction: Current health literature suggests that there has been a decline in the age of pubertal onset and that pubertal onset/duration of puberty may, besides weight status, be influenced by socioeconomic context. Objective: The goal of this study was to determine whether pubertal onset/ duration and puberty-triggering hormones luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) vary according to socioeconomic status (SES). Moreover, we aimed to propose cutoff values of serum LH and FSH for predicting gonadarche in boys. Methods: 2,657 apparently healthy children and adolescents between 5.5 and 18 years from the area of Leipzig were recruited from the LIFE Child study. Age at pubertal onset/end of puberty was given in 738/573 children, respectively. Anthropometric parameters of puberty, blood measurements of LH and FSH, and questionnaires assessing SES were evaluated. Results: Lower SES was associated with earlier thelarche and longer duration of puberty in overweight/obese girls, whereas age of menarche was not affected. In boys with low SES, a trend versus earlier puberty onset can be seen. Lower SES was significantly associated with boys’ age at mutation. No significant differences in boys’ and girls’ serum levels of LH and FSH during puberty according to SES were observed. Serum LH levels of 0.56 IU/L and serum FSH levels of 1.74 IU/L showed the best prediction of gonadarche in boys. Conclusion: Puberty onset/duration and boys’ age at mutation is affected by SES. The proposed cutoff levels for serum LH and FSH could provide a serological tool to determine gonadarche in boys

Introduction Research show that both educational attainment and genetic propensity to education (PGSEdu) can be associated with geographic mobility and that individuals living in more deprived areas tend to have poorer health while those living in more advantaged places tend to have better health. In this thesis, the aim was to study how polygenic scores for education and attained education influence and differ by geographic mobility, and how they influence the association between geographic mobility and mortality. Methods Data was retrieved from the Swedish Twin Registry with twins born 1926-1955 (n=14,211). Logistic regression models were performed to test if PGSEdu and attained education predicted geographic mobility. Cox regression models were then performed to test if geographic mobility, attained education or PGSEdu decreased the risk of mortality. Results The results show that both the PGSEdu and attained education predicted geographic mobility, in both independent and joint models, with higher education indicating a higher mobility. Geographic mobility decreased the risk of mortality in the independent model, but joint models showed that the association was completely explained by attained education.  Conclusions To conclude, both PGSEdu and attained education influenced geographic mobility. Moreover, attained education explained the relationship between geographic mobility and mortality.

This study was designed to examine the associations and differences that exist in the NCE scores of students on the TerraNova portion of the Tennessee Comprehensive Exam, as well as the possible influence of variables such as initial scores, grade level, gender, and free or reduced lunch status. The population consisted of a stable group of 49 students enrolled in a rural Tennessee school district reported to have taken the annual assessment at the same school as they progressed from 3rd to 8th grade during the 1999 to 2004 school years. The study focused on the performance of students over a six-year period. The analysis focused on eight research questions. The independent variables for the study were gender, socioeconomic status and grade level (test score reporting year). The dependent variables consisted of TerraNova value-added scores (NRT) and proficiency scores (CRT) translated to Normal Curve Equivalent (NCE) scores on the Reading / Language Arts and Mathematics portion of the TCAP. A combination of t test for independent samples, examination of effect size utilizing eta square (η2), and an analysis of data to determine correlation coefficient using Pearson's product moment coefficients (r) were used in 50 hypotheses. Statistically significant results were discovered in the following instances: students' 3rd grade Math scores and the same students' 4th, 5th, 6th, 7th, and 8th grade Math scores; 5th, 6th, 7th and 8th grade Reading/Language Arts scores and free/reduced lunch status; 3rd, 4th, 5th, and 6th grade Math scores and free/reduced lunch status; 3rd grade Reading/Language Arts scores and the same students' 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th, 7th, and 8th grade Math scores; 3rd, 5th, 6th, 7th, and 8th grade Reading/Language Arts scores and student gender; 5th and 6th grade Math scores and student gender; 2002 and 2003 mean gain scores and student gender.

This study was conducted to see if a difference exists in the language arts proficiency levels of 2,080 fourth grade students with regard to gender, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status from 2010 through 2012 on the Tennessee Comprehensive Assessment Program. Specifically, this study considered the possibility that a difference existed in language arts proficiency levels between males and females. A quantitative study was used to find differences in the language arts proficiency levels from 2010 through 2012 for males and females in the fourth grade in an upper East Tennessee urban school system. A quasi-experimental design was selected because preexisting data were collected on 2,080 fourth grade students enrolled and assessed in 2010, 2011, and 2012 in an upper East Tennessee school system. The language arts proficiency levels from the Tennessee Comprehensive Assessment Program (TCAP) were collected for each of the students in the study. This study found a significant difference in the language arts proficiency levels with regard to gender, socioeconomic status, and ethnicity on the Tennessee Comprehensive Assessment Program from 2010 through 2012 for 2,080 fourth grade students in an upper East Tennessee School district. In general males and females tended to score in the basic and below basic proficiency levels. White males and females generally scored in the proficient and advanced levels while males and females from the other ethnic groups scored in the below basic and basic levels. Students who received free or reduced lunch benefits scored at the below basic and basic levels of proficiency regardless of gender. Students who did not receive the same benefits were generally proficient or advanced on the language arts portion of the TCAP. White students as a group generally scored higher than students from other ethnic groups. Students who received free and reduced lunch benefits generally received lower proficiency scores than their peers who did not receive the same benefits.

The purpose of the study was to identify which factors are most closely related to academic success during the freshman year for low socioeconomic students in one urban high school. This was an ex post facto study conducted in one urban high school in East Tennessee. The subjects were students enrolled in the 9th grade during the 2005-2006 and 2006-2007 academic school years. Low socioeconomic students were divided into 2 groups based on academic performance during their freshman year of high school. Students with GPAs of 2.5 or higher were classified as higher performing, low socioeconomic status (HLSES). Students with GPAs of 2.4 or lower were considered lower performing, low socioeconomic status (LLSES). The higher achieving group contained 85 students; the lower achieving group had 292 students. Relationships between 9 predictor variables (ethnicity, gender, involvement in extra curricular activities, scores on 7th grade TCAP reading-language arts and mathematics tests, number of out of school suspension days, literacy scores, mobility rates, and attendance) were examined across the 2 groups. Chi-square tests were conducted to compare the 2 groups with regard to involvement in extracurricular activities, gender, and ethnicity. All remaining quantitative predictor variables were compared using independent t tests. Two sets of multiple regressions were conducted, 1 for the higher performing group and 1 for the lower performing group, to determine which of the predictor variables had the strongest relationship to students' GPAs. From the higher performing group, 10 students were interviewed to uncover the factors they credited as having the biggest impact on their academic success during their freshman year. Significance was found for 8 of the 9 predictor variables. Student mobility was the only non-significant factor between the groups. None of the variables had a significant relationship to the higher performing groups' GPA. Four variables, gender, number of suspension days, number of days absent, and involvement in extracurricular activities were significantly related to students' GPA in the lower performing group. Self-discipline, determination, and guidance from an adult to help them stay focused were the main factors cited for academic success by students during their freshman year.

The purpose of this study was to determine what, if any, associations exist between students' academic success on achievement tests and the predictor variables of students' socioeconomic status, participation in an after-school program, and gender. Middlesboro Intermediate School contains a high number of students who participate in the federal free- or reduced-price school meals program, as well as attend the after-school program. This study factored in the student's academic success on the Kentucky Core Content Test and the socioeconomic status of students based on their qualification for the federal free- or reduced-cost school meals program, their participation in the after-school program, and their gender. This study was based on test results for students in the fourth grade in the areas of math, science, reading, writing on demand, and writing portfolio, as well as the test results for the fifth-grade students in the areas of arts and humanities, practical living-vocational studies, social studies, math, and reading. The entire school population was included except for students never attending the after-school program and students receiving testing modifications on the Kentucky Core Content Test. Based on the analysis of the data and findings of this study, the implementation of an after-school program appears to have benefits for all students regardless of socioeconomic status; however, student success differs by content areas and the number of days of attendance in the after-school program.

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Subjective socioeconomic status (SES) has previously been shown to be correlated with a large number of health measures. In this study, the subjective SES measure is modified and translated to measure childhood SES. The subjective SES scale is examined in a participant's hometown, community, and nation. Both an immigrant Hispanic and a Caucasian sample were studied (31 Hispanic males; 42 Hispanic females; 38 Caucasian males, 40 Caucasians females). Childhood SES was the most significant predictor of self-reported health in both sample groups.

The objectives of this study are to provide a comprehensive assessment of inequalities in infant and under-five years¿ child survival, access to and utilisations of child health services among different socio-economic groups in Ethiopia; and identify issues for policies and programmes at national and sub-national levels. This thesis examines the effect of parental socioeconomic status, maternal and delivery care services, mothers¿ bio-demographic and background characteristics on the level of differences in infant and under-five years¿ child survival and access to and utilisation of child health services. Descriptive and multivariate analyses were carried out for selected variables in the literature which were consider as the major determinants of infant mortality rate (IMR) and under-five years¿ child mortality rate (U5MR); access to and utilisations of child health services based on data from Ethiopian demographic and health survey (EDHS), covering the years 2000-2005. In the multivariate analysis a logit regression model was used to estimates inequalities in infant and under-five years¿ child survival, and inequalities in access to and utilisation of child health services. In Ethiopia, little was known about inequalities in IMR and U5MR, and inequalities in access to and utilisation of child health services. Besides, there is no systematic analysis of health inequalities and into its determinants using logistic regression. According to the available literature, this is the first comprehensive and systematic analysis of inequality of health in Ethiopia. The findings show that compared to under-five years¿ children of mothers¿ partners¿ with no work, mothers¿ partners¿ in professional, technical and managerial occupations had 13 times more chance of under-five years¿ child survival for 2000 weighted observations. In addition, compared to infants of mothers who were gave birth to one child in last 5 years preceding the survey, infants of mothers who were gave birth to 2 children in last 5 years preceding the survey had 70% less chance of infant survival while infants of mothers who were gave birth to 3 or more children had 89% less chance of infant survival for 2000 weighted observations. Moreover, this study finding also indicates that inequalities increased significantly in the five years period between 2000 and 2005 among mothers with different birth interval. Most of the relations between birth interval and receiving childhood immunisation for vaccine-preventable diseases were statistically significant. Moreover compared to non-educated mothers, mothers who completed secondary and higher education were nearly 10 times more likely to receive DPT3 immunisation for their young children. This study concludes that policy measures that tackle health inequalities will have a positive impact in the implementation of health sector strategy of Ethiopia. Health inequalities studies in Ethiopia and Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) countries should focus on systematic analysis of different socio-economic groups. The finding of this study support investing in the Ethiopia¿s health extension package (HEP) is a necessary but not sufficient condition for addressing rural poor health problem. HEP is successful in increasing primary health care coverage in rural Ethiopia to 89.6% (FMOH, 2009) but unable to reduce Ethiopia¿s higher level of IMR and U5MR. HEP is one of the success stories that address the rural poor health problem and can also be adapted to developing countries of SSA. The finding also shows that the success stories such as health insurance programs like Rwanda (World Bank, 2008a) and Ethiopia (FMOH, 2009/10) will play a key role in achieving country¿s health care financing goal of universal coverage. This can also be replicated in the developing SSA countries.