At the very heart of variationist Sociolinguistics is the notion that language has an underlying structure, and that this structure varies according to external linguistic variables such as age, gender, social class, community membership, nationality, and so on. Specifically, this study examines variation in initial and final segments, as well as sentence final particles in Cantonese in Macau Special Administrative Region (SAR). Results of this study indicate that external linguistic constraint categories play a role in the realization of how and when initial and final segments, as well as sentence final particles are used in Macau Cantonese. Finally, this dissertation illustrates that pragmatic functions in the systematic use of linguistic variables requires explanations that draw from variationist sociolinguistic research that has an ethnographic and interpretive basis. / Linguistics / M.A. (Sociolinguistics)

This thesis examines the results of a large-scale sociolinguistic study on the use of English in two universities in China. The aim of the thesis is to determine the sociolinguistic realities of the use of English in higher education in China. The universities were selected on the basis of their unique status in China’s higher education hierarchy. One university was a private institute reliant on student fees for its income, and the other a state-funded university under the supervision of the Chinese Ministry of Education. A sociolinguistic survey was conducted involving some 490 respondents at these universities between early 2012 and mid-2013. It was specifically aimed at describing the use of the English language in the formal education of students. The study reports on the status and functions of English at the universities, as well as the attitudes of various stakeholders towards English (and other languages). It also examines their beliefs about English. English is considered in a number of contexts: first, the context of language contact, of English alongside other languages and language varieties on the two university campuses; second, of English as part of the linguistic worlds of Chinese students who switch between languages in their daily lives, both in their education as well as their private lives; and third, of the spread and use of English in terms of the physical and virtual movement of people across spaces. The findings of the study indicate that the increasing use of English in the formal education at these universities is having an impact on the ways in which Chinese students are learning their course materials, and even more notably in the myriad ways these students are using multiple languages to negotiate their everyday lives. As university students in China become increasingly bilingual, their ability to move across spaces is shown to increase, both in the ‘real’ world, as well as in their Internet and entertainment lives. / Linguistics / D. Lit. et Phil. (Linguistics)

This thesis addresses the problem of the lack of a systematic approach to the modernisation of the indigenous languages of South Africa, with particular reference to Venda. Thus, a systematic approach is proposed in this study for the development of modem terminology in Venda. This approach is based on the canonical model for language planning. In this model, terminology development should follow the following four steps: (1) analysis of the terminological needs of the situation, (2) preparation of a plan and strategies for research, (3) implementation of terminology in practice by means of suitable policies, and lastly, (4) evaluation and constant updating of terminology. Within the canonical model for language planning, different models or frameworks are proposed. First is the theoretical model, which follows the pragmatic approach rather than a purist approach and takes into consideration other extralinguistic factors such as the nature of the special subject field, the needs of the target users and the socio-cultural context. The pragmatic approach is divided into two phases, namely the borrowing phase and the indigenisation phase. In the borrowing phase the borrowed terms are incorporated into the language with immediate effect and these terms may be replaced by indigenous terms in the indigenisation phase where less specialised communication is used. In the indigenisation phase, different language internal term formation strategies were identified, namely semantic shift, derivation, compounding, paraphrasing, initialisms, acronyms, clipping and new word manufacture. It was established that the use of these term formation strategies in Venda requires linguistic expertise, technical expertise and cultural expertise. Accordingly, a sociolinguistic approach is recommended rather than a purely linguistic approach. Lastly, a model of practical terminology work and a model for cooperation and coordination are proposed for terminology work in this language. With regard to the former, various steps that should be followed in terminology work are outlined. In the latter model various language agencies, such as government departments, parastatals and non-governmental organisations that may be involved in the modernisation of this language are identified. A framework in which these agencies could cooperate and coordinate their terminology work is proposed. / Linguistics / D.Litt. et Phil. (Linguistics)

Text in Afrikaans / In hierdie verhandeling word skoolname as onderafdeling van die Onomastiek behandel. Die gee van skoolname is 'n amptelike aangeleentheid en daarom is die beleid onderliggend aan die handeling onder die loep geneem. Beleid bepaal die ortografiese aard van skoolname en die manifestasie daarvan is sosiolinguisties van belang. Skoolname, wat onder eiename ressorteer, is hoofsaaklik oor 'n semantiese en sosiolinguistiese boeg gegooi, daarom word terme soos verwysing, konvensie en agtergrondbeskrywing aan die hand van veral die teoriee van Devitt, Strawson en Kripke beskryf. Van Langendonck le veral klem op die pragmatiese aard van die eienaam en daarom vorm sy teorie, die hetekenisparadoks van die eienaam, 'n belangrike uitgangspunt by die konsepsuele en pragmatiese aard van skoolname. Die gee van name is In suiwer menslike handeling wat selde ooit ongemotiveer geskied. Die ontstaansmotiewe wat skoolnaamgewing ten grondslag le, word bespreek aan die hand van die verskillende kategoriee. Botsende sosiale faktore soos veral teweeggebring deur kulturele diversiteit beinvloed naamgewing en daarom verander name. Die faktore onderliggend aan naamsverandering word uitgelig en bespreek. Die moontlikheid om ten spyte van 'n multikulturele en multilinguistiese samelewing tog 'n nasionale identiteit te vertoon, word ten slotte ondersoek en bespreek. / In this dissertation, names of schools as a subdivision of Onomastics are dealt with. School names are researched mainly under the cloak of Semantics and Socio-linguistics. Therefore, terms like reference, convention and a backing of descriptions are referred to according to the theories of Devitt, Strawson and Kripke. Van Langendonck specifically emphasises the pragmatic nature of proper nouns in his theory the paradox of the meaning of proper nouns which is an important point of departure in the conceptual and pragmatic nature of the names of schools. The underlying motives in respect of school naming are categorized and discussed according to the motives of origin. Conflicting social factors play an important role in the naming of schools and therefore names also change. These changes are accentuated and discussed. The possibility for a country to reflect a national identity in spite of a multicultural and multilingual society, is explored and discussed. / Afrikaans & Theory of Literature / M.A. (Afrikaans)

The aim of the study is to provide an account of the present state of Portuguese in the Johannesburg Portuguese community, and to identify factors influencing the maintenance of, and shift from the mother tongue. South African society necessitates a knowledge and daily use of English, and sometimes Afrikaans. Literacy and proficiency in the Portuguese mother tongue is therefore rapidly decreasing, especially amongst the third generation. Despite this decline, certain factors play a role in maintaining Portuguese. The most important factors in the maintenance of the mother tongue are education, cultural activities, contact with Portugal, parental influence and positive attitudes. If measures are not taken, and an awareness created within the community of the need to create a situation of stable bilingualism, the Portuguese language will continue to be eroded. / 0 objectivo desta tese e analisar o nivel actual da lingua portuguesa, na comunidade Portuguesa em Joanesburgo, e identificar os factores que influenciam a manutenc;ao e ou o afastamento da lingua materna. A sociedade sul-africana necessita de urn conhecimento diario da lingua inglesa e, par vezes da lingua afrikaans. Por conseguinte, a capacidade de ler e escrever fluentemente na lingua portuguesa esta rapidamente a desaparecer, especialmente na 3a gerac;ao. Apesar deste declinio, existem ainda determinados factores que contribuem para a sobrevivencia da lingua portuguesa na comunidade. Os factores mais importantes sao: a educac;ao, as actividades culturais, o contacto com Portugal, a influencia familiar - atitudes positivas tomadas pela propria comunidade. Se nao forem criadas medidas pelos portugueses, que garantam a consciencializac; ao da lingua materna e urn determinado bilinguismo, a lingua portuguesa acasani par desaparecer na Africa do Sul. / Linguistics / M.A. (Linguistics)

Following recently increased interest in research on gender, the thesis seeks to supplement current research by investigating language and gender. Specifically, it explores the influence of gender on the use of vague expressions within the formal context of departmental meetings. Respondents' TM perceptions of vague language use in the form of responses to a questionnaire were also collected and analysed. The study revealed gender differences as regards vague language use. Women used more vague expressions than their male colleagues. Males and females displayed preferences for certain vague expressions an indication of gender construction. For instance, the men used more vague additives, whereas the females made use of more hedges in their utterances. An attempt is made to explain these preferences in terms of the difference and dominance theories. It was also found that the generally formal context of meetings operated informally within these academic contexts. The explanations for the informality found in academic meetings are related to the degree of distance in relationships, and the frequency of interaction among colleagues. Responses to the questionnaire revealed differences in vague language use as regards male and females on certain items. This revealed a probable indication of gender construction. For instance, whereas the males were more sensitive to context in terms of vague language use, the females were less sensitive to the contextual use of vague language. The difference in male and female sensitivity to context is explained within a constant and fixed female adherence to informality. Politeness, however, did not emerge as a prominent feature, as neither males nor females in this group considered politeness as a major function of vague language use. While the investigation was held within the context of academic meetings, these gender attributes, preferences and or differences may be operating in other contexts. The research therefore serves as a point of departure for further studies on gender and vague language use. / Linguistics and Modern Languages / M.A. (Sociolinguistics)

In this dissertation, I investigate whether the conceptualisation of computerised technological phenomena is influenced by social variables, in particular exposure to the computer. The conceptualisation and behaviour of a group of students majoring in technology-related fields were studied. Through the application of Conceptual Blending Theory, the multi-modal desktop metaphorical blend (DMMB) (as an electronic representation of an actual office desktop) was focused on. The participants were provided with tasks with the aim of determining whether they conceptualise the electronic desktop as a literal ‘thing-in-itself’ or as an e-version of their actual desks. The intent was to examine to what extent social variables, especially exposure, motivate the nature of the conceptualisation. Therefore, it is hypothesised that exposure, regarded as the primary variable in this study, influences conceptualisation of the DMMB to the extent where the it either loses its metaphoric quality in participants, who maintain regular and prolonged exposure to the computer, or retains the metaphoric quality of the DMMB in participants, who are not exposed to the computer on a regular and prolonged basis. Two groups were distinguished based on the extent of the individual participants’ exposure to computer technology, namely a high-exposure group and a low-exposure group. A mixed method approach was used to test and analyse data collected from individual participants, as well as from the high- and low-exposure groups. Methods used to test these hypotheses included questionnaires, word association (a conceptual task), controlled observation (a behavioural task), and interviews. The resulting data were analysed by means of a thematic interview analysis and non-parametric statistical tests. / Linguistics and Modern Languages / M.A. (Linguistics)

This dissertation examines effects of globalization on language, identity, and education through the case of four Korean jogi yuhak (early study abroad) students attending Toronto high schools. Resulting from a 2.4-year sociolinguistic ethnography on the language learning experiences of these students, the thesis explores how globalization--and the commodification of language and corporatization of education in the new economy, in particular--has transformed ideas of language, bilingualism, and language learning with respect to the transnational circulation of linguistic and symbolic resources in today‘s world. This thesis incorporates insights from critical social theories, linguistic anthropology, globalization studies, and sociolinguistics, and aims to propose a "globalization sensitive" Second Language Acquisition (SLA) theory. To better grasp the ways in which language learning is socially and politically embedded in new conditions generated by globalization, this new SLA theory conceives of language as a set of resources and bilingualism as a social construct, and examines language learning as an economic activity, shaped through encounters with the transnational language education industry. The analysis examines new transnational subjectivities of yuhaksaeng (visa students), which index hybrid identities that are simultaneously global and Korean. In their construction of themselves as "Cools" who are wealthy and cosmopolitan, yuhaksaeng deployed newly-valued varieties of Korean language and culture as resources in the globalized new economy. This practice, however, resulted in limits to their acquisition of forms of English capital valued in the Canadian market. As a Korean middle class strategy for acquiring valuable forms of English capital, jogi yuhak is caught in tension: while the ideology of language as a skill and capital to help an individual‘s social mobility drives the jogi yuhak movement, the essentialist ideology of "authentic" English makes it impossible for Koreans to work it to their advantage. The thesis argues that in multilingual societies, ethnic/racial/linguistic minorities‘ limited access to the acquisition of linguistic competence is produced by existing inequality, rather than their limited linguistic proficiency contributing to their marginal position. To counter naturalized social inequality seemingly linguistic in nature, language education in globalization should move away from essentialism toward process- and practice-oriented approaches to language, community, and identity.

Cette thèse a été financée par le Conseil de recherches en sciences humaines du Canada (numéro de référence 767-2010-1310) / Dans le cadre de la théorie de l’accommodation communicative, ce travail consiste à évaluer, avec la méthodologie de la sociolinguistique comparative, dans quelle mesure les immigrants hispanophones des Andes boliviennes qui se sont établis à San Pedro de Atacama (Chili) accommodent leur langage aux hispanophones de ce pays. Pour ce faire, quatre traits grammaticaux caractéristiques de l’espagnol andin ont été choisis pour être analysés : l’usage du double possessif (e. g., He ido a su casa de mi marido), l’utilisation des adverbes de lieu comme particule finale de la préposition en (e. g., Entonces he vivido en allá así como diez años), la préférence du passé composé sur le passé simple pour exprimer des actions qui ont été accomplies dans le passé (e. g., El año pasado he ido a visitar a mi madre) et l’usage exclusif de formes verbales standard pour exprimer la deuxième personne du singulier (e. g., Tú puedes estar comiendo tu hamburguesa). Les résultats obtenus après avoir analysé statistiquement la variation dans les données empiriques qui ont été recueillies au moyen d’entrevues révèlent que, tandis que ces immigrants conservent l’usage du double possessif et l’utilisation des adverbes de lieu comme particule finale de la préposition en de manière pratiquement inchangée par rapport à un groupe de contrôle de Boliviens non-immigrants (c’est ce que l’on entend par « divergence »), ils substituent graduellement la préférence du passé composé sur le passé simple pour exprimer des actions qui ont été accomplies dans le passé par une prédilection du passé simple sur le passé composé (e. g., Esta mañana fui a la playa) et intègrent progressivement l’alternance entre les formes verbales standard et les formes verbales vernaculaires du voseo pour exprimer la deuxième personne du singulier (e. g., Cuando tú flotái… y no te sumerges hacia adentro), à l’instar de ce qui se fait dans l’espagnol parlé au Chili (c’est ce que l’on entend par « convergence »). En d’autres termes, on peut affirmer qu’ils incorporent de nouvelles ressources linguistiques dans leur langage, en même temps qu’ils en conservent d’autres sans modifications significatives. On remarque donc que le contact dialectal provoqué par l’immigration bolivienne au Chili a des conséquences linguistiques indéniables qui font ressortir le dynamisme de la langue. En effet, le fait que ces immigrants adoptent de nouvelles ressources linguistiques tandis qu’ils en gardent d’autres sans changements notables met en évidence que les processus de convergence et divergence dialectales ne sont pas exclusifs, mais plutôt inclusifs, c’est-à-dire qu’ils peuvent avoir lieu simultanément au sein de la même communauté linguistique. Enfin, le fait que ces immigrants parlent désormais un dialecte qui n’est équivalent ni au dialecte d’origine ni au dialecte du lieu d’accueil permet d’avancer qu’ils parlent une sorte de dialecte nouveau. / Within the framework of the communication accommodation theory, the present study evaluates the extent to which Spanish-speaking migrants from the Bolivian Andes to San Pedro de Atacama (Chile) accommodate their speech to Chilean Spanish, using a comparative sociolinguistics methodology. Four distinctive grammatical features of Andean Spanish were selected for the analysis: the use of the double possessive adjectives (e.g. He ido a su casa de mi marido), the use of adverbs of place as adjuncts of the Spanish preposition en (e.g. Entonces he vivido en allá así como diez años), the preference for the present perfect over the simple past to express the perfective aspect (e.g. El año pasado he ido a visitar a mi madre), and the exclusive use of standard verbal forms to express the second person singular (e.g. Tú puedes estar comiendo tu hamburguesa). Results were obtained from a statistical analysis of variation in the empirical data, which were collected through interviews, and compared with a non-migrant Bolivian control group. The data reveal that, while these migrants maintain a practically unaltered use of both the double possessive adjectives and the adverbs of place as adjuncts of the Spanish preposition en (this is understood as “divergence”), they gradually develop a preference for the present perfect over the simple past to express the perfective aspect by a predilection for the simple past over the present perfect (e.g. Esta mañana fui a la playa), and they progressively adopt an alternation between standard forms and vernacular ones (i.e. voseo) to express the second person singular (e.g. Cuando tu flotái… y no te sumerges hacia adentro), as occurs in Chilean Spanish (this is understood as “convergence”). In other words, the migrants have incorporated new linguistic resources into their speech, while they have simultaneously maintained others without any significant change. The dialect contact situation caused by migrants from the Bolivian Andes to Chile, therefore, has undeniable linguistic consequences, which bring out the dynamic character of the language. Indeed, the fact that these migrants integrate new linguistic resources into their speech while simultaneously maintaining others without serious changes highlights that the processes of dialectal convergence and divergence are not exclusive, but rather inclusive. That is, they can occur simultaneously within the same linguistic community. In conclusion, the fact that these migrants henceforth speak a dialect that is equivalent neither to their original dialect nor to the host dialect supports the claim that they speak a kind of new dialect. / Dentro del marco de la teoría de la acomodación en la comunicación, este trabajo consiste en evaluar en qué medida los inmigrantes hispanohablantes de los Andes bolivianos establecidos en San Pedro de Atacama (Chile) acomodan su habla a la de los hispanohablantes de este país, recurriendo a la metodología de la sociolingüística comparativa. Para ello, se seleccionaron para análisis cuatro marcas gramaticales del español de los Andes: el uso del posesivo doblado (e. g., He ido a su casa de mi marido), la utilización de los adverbios demostrativos de lugar como términos de la preposición en (e. g., Entonces he vivido en allá así como diez años), la preferencia del pretérito perfecto sobre el pretérito indefinido para expresar el aspecto perfectivo (e. g., El año pasado he ido a visitar a mi madre) y el uso exclusivo de las formas verbales del tuteo para referir a la segunda persona del singular (e. g., Tú puedes estar comiendo tu hamburguesa). Los resultados, que se obtuvieron después de haber analizado estadísticamente la variación en los datos empíricos que se recogieron mediante entrevistas, revelan que mientras que estos inmigrantes mantienen el uso del posesivo doblado y la utilización de los adverbios demostrativos de lugar como términos de la preposición en sin cambios aparentes con respecto a un grupo de control constituido por bolivianos que no han emigrado de la zona andina (esto es lo que se entiende por “divergencia”), sustituyen gradualmente la preferencia por el pretérito perfecto frente al indefinido para expresar el aspecto perfectivo por una predilección del pretérito indefinido sobre el perfecto (e. g., Esta mañana fui a la playa), e integran progresivamente la alternancia entre las formas verbales tuteantes y las formas verbales del voseo para referir a la segunda persona del singular (e. g., Cuando tú flotái… y no te sumerges hacia adentro), a la manera de lo que se hace en el español chileno (esto es lo que se entiende por “convergencia”). En otras palabras, se puede afirmar que estos inmigrantes incorporan nuevos recursos lingüísticos en su habla al mismo tiempo que mantienen otros sin modificaciones significativas. Así, pues, se puede considerar que el contacto dialectal provocado por la inmigración boliviana en Chile tiene consecuencias lingüísticas innegables que resaltan el dinamismo de la lengua. Efectivamente, el hecho de que estos inmigrantes adopten nuevos recursos lingüísticos mientras que mantienen otros sin cambios notables pone de manifiesto que los procesos de convergencia y divergencia dialectales no son exclusivos, sino que son más bien inclusivos, es decir, pueden acaecer simultáneamente en el seno de una misma comunidad lingüística. Por último, el hecho de que estos inmigrantes hablen ahora un dialecto que no es equivalente ni al dialecto original ni al dialecto del lugar de acogida permite postular que utilizan una suerte de dialecto nuevo.

Ce travail, dont le titre est : Le modèle d’immersion réciproque en question : enseigner en classe bilingue à New York et à Francfort / Das Two-Way-Immersion Modell im Fokus : Zweisprachig unterrichten in New York und Frankfurt/Main, a pour objectif de répondre à la problématique suivante : comment la conceptualisation du modèle d’enseignement bilingue d’immersion réciproque influence les pratiques éducatives (didactiques et pédagogiques) des enseignants et les productions langagières des enfants, et pourquoi ? / The aim of this study, the title of which is “Focussing on the model of two-way immersion: teaching in bilingual classrooms in New York and Frankfurt on the Main”, is to provide an answer to the following question: in what ways does the conceptualisation of the bilingual model of two-way immersion affect the educational practices, both didactic and pedagogical, of teachers and the language production of children, and why is this so?