The acidification of soils has been a continuous process since at least the beginning of the 20th century. Therefore, an inquiry of how and when the soil pH levels have changed is relevant to gain better understanding of this process. The aim of this thesis is to study the average national soil pH level over time in Sweden and the local spatial differences within Sweden over time. With data from the Swedish National Forest Inventory, soil pH surfaces are estimated for each surveyed year together with the national average soil pH using a generalized additive modeling approach with one model for each pair of consecutive years. A decreasing trend in average national level soil pH was found together with some very weak evidence of year-to-year differences in the spatial structure of soil pH.

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Tyrimo tikslas - nustatyti ir įvertinti Lietuvoje ekologiškai ūkininkaujančių ir pagal rengiamą LR ŽŪM konkursą pretenduojančių tapti „Pažangiausias ekologiniais ūkiais“, dirvožemių turtingumą augalams prieinamomis maisto medžiagomis ir susiformavusių agrofitocenozių agrarinę būklę. Tyrimo objektas – Lietuvos skirtingų regionų ekologinės gamybos ūkių, pretenduojančių tapti “ Pažangiausiais ekologiniais ūkiais“ dirvožemiai ir suformuotos agrofitocenozės. Tyrimų metodika. 2007–2009 metais LR ŽŪM organizuoto konkurso metu renkant „Pažangiausius ekologinius ūkius“, iš ekologinių ūkių laukų buvo imami dirvožemio ėminiai ir atlikta agrocheminė dirvožemio analizė, taip pat nustatytas agrofitocenozių dominančių tankis ir segetinės floros kiekis. Dirvožemio pH nustatytas potenciometriniu metodu, judrieji P2O5 ir K2O – Egnerio – Rimo – Domingo (A – L) metodo ištraukoje. Agrofitocenozių įvertinimui pasirinktas ekspedicinių tyrimų analitinis metodas. Tyrimo rezultatai. Atlikus tyrimus didžiausias judriojo kalio ir judriojo fosforo kiekis rastas Vakarų Lietuvos gamtinėje dirvožeminėje zonoje. Mažiausias kiekis – Baltijos aukštumų gamtinėje dirvožeminėje zonoje. Judriuoju kaliu ir judriuoju fosforu turtingiausi Šiaulių, Telšių ir Tauragės apskričių ekologinių ūkių dirvožemiai. Humusu turtingiausi Vakarų Lietuvos gamtinės dirvožeminės zonos dirvožemiai Mažiausias ekologinių ūkių agrofitocenozių dominantėse segetinės floros kiekis buvo Kauno, Panevėžio ir Tauragės apskrityse... [toliau žr. visą tekstą] / The subject of research – to identify and evaluate the richness of soil in the nutrients suitable for plants and the agrarian state of the formed agrophytocenoses of the ecological farms of Lithuania and the candidates for the status of the Leading ecological farms under the competition organized by the Ministry of Agriculture of the Republic of Lithuania. The aim of the research. The soils and agrophytocenoses of the ecological farms of different regions of Lithuania seeking to become the Leading ecological farms. Methods of the research. In 2007–2009, during the competition for the name of the Leading ecological farms organized by the Ministry of Agriculture of the Republic of Lithuania, the soils of the fields of the ecological farms were sampled and undergone the agrochemical soil analysis. There also was determined the density of the agrophytocenoses and the amount of segetal flora. The soil pH was determined using the potentiometric method, the mobile P2O5 and K2O – using the Egner-Riem-Domingo method. The field analytical method was used to evaluate the agrophytocenoses. The results of the research. The tests showed that the area of natural soil of the western Lithuania contained the maximum amount of mobile potassium and mobile phosphorus. The minimum amount was found in the area of natural soil of Baltic Heights. The soils of the ecological farms of Šiauliai, Telšiai and Tauragė regions have the maximum content of mobile potassium and mobile... [to full text]

Taikant tiksliojo ūkininkavimo sistemą atliekami dirvos, augalų būklės, tręšimo poreikio ir derlingumo matavimai. Naudojantis gautais duomenimis, darbo metu, koreguojami žemės ūkio mašinų technologiniai parametrai. Tokiu būdu optimizuojamos trąšų, kalkių, pesticidų, degalų ir laiko sąnaudos auginant ne tik žemės ūkio augalus maistui bei pašarams, bet ir energetinius augalus – biomasei. Eksperimentiniai tyrimai atlikti mobiliu Veris MSP įrenginiu su Soil pH Manager sistema. Įvertinus sudarytų dirvožemio pH žemėlapių tikslumą, galima teigti, kad įrenginio Veris MSP racionalus darbinis greitis yra 9 km/h. Greitį padidinus, įrenginys matavimo reikšmes fiksuoja didesniais tarpais, todėl lieka neišskirtos mažą plotą užimančios skirtingo pH lauko zonos. Važiuojant įrenginiu 3 km/h greičiu, įrenginio našumas siekė 6,50,5 ha/h, o 12 km/h greičiu – 26,52,2 ha/h. Atliktų dirvožemio rūgštumo tyrimų patikimumą įrodo gautas, dirvožemio pH nustatyto įrenginiu Veris MSP bei nustatyto laboratorijoje tiesinis tarpusavio ryšys (R2 = 0,81). Kalkių normą parinkus, pagal įrenginio duomenis sudarytus kalkinimo žemėlapius, sutaupoma apie 40% kalkių, lyginant su kalkinimu pagal žemėlapius, sudarytus laboratorijoje nustatytų pH reikšmių pagrindu. Kalkinant pagal laboratorijos duomenų vidurkį (vienoda 500 kg/ha norma), atskiri lauko plotai būtų nepakankamai pakalkinti arba perkalkinti. / Applying the system of precision agriculture, soil, plant condition, fertilisation demand, and fertility measures are taken. Using the data obtained, technological parameters of agricultural machines are adjusted in a course of work. In such a way the consumption of fertilisers, lime, pesticides, fuel, and time are optimised growing not only agricultural plants for food and feed, but also raising the materials for biomass. Experimental studies were carried out using a mobile unit Veris MSP with Soil pH Manager System. After the assessment of accuracy of the pH maps formed, it can be stated that the reasonable working speed of the unit Veris MSP is 9 km/h. Increasing the speed, the unit records the measurement values in greater spaces, thus leaving small areas of field with different pH values unmarked. Moving the unit at the speed of 3 km/h, the unit reached work efficiency of 6.5±0.5 ha/h and at 12 km/h – 26.5±2.2 ha/h. The reliability of the soil acidity research conducted is proved by the linear correlation of soil pH identified using the Veris MSP and the soil pH identified in the laboratory (R2 = 0.81). Selecting the lime rates according to the maps created using the data from the unit lime savings are about 40%, compared to the liming based on the maps created on pH values determined in the laboratory. When liming is done according to the average of laboratory data (equal to 500 kg/ha rate), some field areas are under-limed or over-limed.

Baigiamajame darbe tiriama, kokią įtaką daro skirtingos medžių rūšys dirvožemio rūgštingumui. Darbo objektas – ASU medynų parkas. Darbo tikslas - Šio tyrimo tikslas yra nustatyti, kaip skirtingos medžių rūšys pakeitė dirvožemio pH reakciją medynuose, kuriuose medžiai auga 50 – 56 metus. Darbo metodai – skirtinguose dirvožemio gyliuose pH reakcijos nustatymas lauko ir laboratorijos sąlygomis, karbonatų putojimo gylio nustatymas lauko sąlygomis. Darbo rezultatai. Medynų dirvožemio pH reakcija priklauso nuo augančių medžių rūšių. pH-metru gauti duomenys parodė, kad apie pusės medynų dirvožemio reakcija buvo labiau šarminė nei pievos dirvožemio. H2O ir CaCl2 tirpaluose nustatytos pH reakcijos gautos rūgštinės, tačiau ne visos. H2O tirpale šarminė reakcija gauta paprastosios pušies, neutrali – plaukuotojo beržo ir mažalapės liepos medynų dirvožemiuose. Didžiausią paklotę ir nuokritų masę suformavo hibridinio maumedžio medynas. Visi kiti medynai suformavo daug mažesnes paklotes. Dirvožemio rūgštingumo didinime nerasta ryšio nei tarp svetimkraščių bei vietinių medžių rūšių, nei tarp lapuočių bei spygliuočių. / Subject of the research – This thesis was started in order to investigate what influence on soil acidity has different tree species. Investigation was held in the stand park belonging to Aleksandras Stulginskis University. Aim of the research - Thesis aims to investigate how different tree species has changed soil pH reaction in stands of 50 – 56 years old. Methodology – pH reaction's identification in out doors and lab conditions in different depth levels of soil, depth identification of carbonate foaming in out door conditions. Results. The investigation revealed that soil pH is mostly depending on growing tree species. Using pH meter it was estimated that soil reaction under half of the stands was more alkaline than in grasslands. A reaction in H2O and CaCl2 solutions was found to be acid, however not in all samples. In H2O solution reaction was alkaline for pine (Pinus Sylvestris) while neutral for birch (Betula pubescens) and lime tree (Tilia cordata) stands soils. The thickest litter and biggest mass of litter fall was formed under hybrid larch stands. Other stands formed much lower litter, therefore it could not be stated that litter fall of all tree species has impact on soil acidity. There was found no correlation in increasing soils’ acidity between native and introduced tree species as well as broadleaves and coniferous.

This study investigated the impact of three edaphic factors on the distribution of forest plants in Sweden. Based on 2657 plots with 22 common species, Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) and Generalized-linear-model (GLM) were performed with pH measurements in the top layer of the soil, latitude and deciduous tree proportion as explanatory variables. Variation of the species occurrence could to a substantial degree be explained by pH, latitude and proportion of timber volume of deciduous tree species. Furthermore, the majority of species were affected by the studied environmental variables. Therefore, these factors have an important role in the ecological interactions in the forest. All species also showed broad pH-niches with many occurrences spread out within the species entire pH-range. Finally, the study relates to educational science through designing a meaningful excursion for secondary school when teaching ecology.

A disposição de resíduos sólidos ou a aplicação de pesticidas e fertilizantes podem levar ao aumento da concentração de elementos potencialmente tóxicos, especialmente os metais pesados, em solos e águas subterrâneas. Como o solo vem sendo considerado potencial depósito para disposição desses resíduos, é importante conhecer os mecanismos de retenção e transporte destes elementos para minimizar seu impacto ao ambiente. Uma maneira de avaliar o comportamento de um metal no solo é por meio de estudos de adsorção. Avaliou-se o efeito da variação do pH na adsorção de metais pesados, em sistemas individual e competitivo, em amostras da camada superficial (0-0,2 m) de 30 solos representativos do Estado de São Paulo. Isotermas de adsorção foram elaboradas após adição de 10 a 200 mg L-1 de Cd, Cu, Ni e Zn, na forma de nitrato, tendo a solução de NaNO3 0,01 mol L-1 como eletrólito suporte. O efeito do pH na adsorção dos metais foi avaliado por meio da adição de 20 ml de uma solução de NaNO3 0,01 mol L-1 com 0,1 mol L-1 de cada um dos quatro metais. O ajuste do pH foi feito ou com HNO3 ou com NaOH, procurando-se obter valores entre 4 a 7. Após agitação das amostras e posterior centrifugação, foram feitas determinações dos metais na solução de equilíbrio. A quantidade de metal adsorvida foi calculada pela diferença entre a concentração adicionada e a remanescente na solução de equilíbrio. A partir dos resultados experimentais, obtiveram-se parâmetros de adsorção derivados dos modelos de Langmuir e de Freundlich, os quais foram correlacionados com atributos físicos, químicos e mineralógicos dos solos. A adequação das equações de Langmuir e de Freundlich aos resultados de adsorção dos quatro metais foi satisfatória e com altos coeficientes de correlação para a maioria das observações. Para todos os solos, as quantidades de Cd, Cu, Ni e Zn adsorvidas foram diretamente proporcionais às doses adicionadas. O Cu apresentou os maiores valores dos parâmetros de adsorção estimados pelos modelos de Langmuir e Freundlich. Os parâmetros adsorção máxima de Langmuir e capacidade adsortiva de Freundlich foram positivamente correlacionados com o pH do solo. Foi observado aumento na adsorção dos metais à medida que aumentou o pH até que fosse atingido um platô. Em altos valores de pH, houve decréscimo na adsorção de alguns metais em alguns solos. A seqüência de adsorção encontrada para a maioria dos solos ao pH 4,5 e 5,5 foi Cu > Cd > Zn > Ni. Ao pH 6,5 a seqüência encontrada na maioria dos solos foi Cd > Zn > Cu > Ni. / The disposal of solid waste or the application of pesticides and fertilizers may increase the concentration of potentially toxic elements, especially heavy metals, in soil and in groundwater. As the soil has been considered a potential deposit for the provision of such wastes, it is important to know the mechanisms of retention and transport of these elements to minimize their impact to the environment. The behavior of a metal in soil may be evaluated through adsorption studies. The effect of pH variation on the adsorption of heavy metals was evaluated, under individual and competitive systems, in samples from the surface layer (0-0.2 m) of 30 representative soils of the State of São Paulo. Adsorption isotherms were prepared after addition of 10 to 200 mg L-1 of Cd, Cu, Ni and Zn in the form of nitrate, and the background electrolyte was a 0.01 mol L-1 NaNO3 solution. The pH effect on metals adsorption was evaluated after adding 20 ml of 0.01 mol L-1 NaNO3 solution with 0.1 mol L-1 of each metal. The adjustment of pH was made or with HNO3 or with NaOH, in order to achieve pH values among 4 to 7. After shaking the samples and subsequent centrifugation, metal concentration was determined in the equilibrium solution. The amount of adsorbed metal was calculated by the difference between the added and the remaining concentration in the equilibrium solution. Adsorption parameters estimated by Langmuir and Freundlich models were obtained with the experimental data and were related with physical, chemical and mineralogical soil attributes. Langmuir and Freundlich models fitted well the adsorption results for the four metals, with high correlation coefficients for the majority of the data. For all soils, adsorbed amounts of Cd, Cu, Ni and Zn were directly correlated to the added doses. Cu had the highest values of adsorption parameters estimated by both Langmuir and Freundlich models. The maximum adsorption from Langmuir model and the adsorption capacity from Freundlich model were positively correlated with soil pH. In The adsorption increased as a result of pH increase until a plateau was achieved. Under high pH values, a decrease in the adsorption of some metals was observed in some soils. The sequence of adsorption found for the majority of the soil pH 4.5 and 5.5 was Cu > Cd > Zn > Ni. For the pH 6.5 the sequence found in most soils was Cd > Zn > Cu > Ni.

A disposição de resíduos sólidos ou a aplicação de pesticidas e fertilizantes podem levar ao aumento da concentração de elementos potencialmente tóxicos, especialmente os metais pesados, em solos e águas subterrâneas. Como o solo vem sendo considerado potencial depósito para disposição desses resíduos, é importante conhecer os mecanismos de retenção e transporte destes elementos para minimizar seu impacto ao ambiente. Uma maneira de avaliar o comportamento de um metal no solo é por meio de estudos de adsorção. Avaliou-se o efeito da variação do pH na adsorção de metais pesados, em sistemas individual e competitivo, em amostras da camada superficial (0-0,2 m) de 30 solos representativos do Estado de São Paulo. Isotermas de adsorção foram elaboradas após adição de 10 a 200 mg L-1 de Cd, Cu, Ni e Zn, na forma de nitrato, tendo a solução de NaNO3 0,01 mol L-1 como eletrólito suporte. O efeito do pH na adsorção dos metais foi avaliado por meio da adição de 20 ml de uma solução de NaNO3 0,01 mol L-1 com 0,1 mol L-1 de cada um dos quatro metais. O ajuste do pH foi feito ou com HNO3 ou com NaOH, procurando-se obter valores entre 4 a 7. Após agitação das amostras e posterior centrifugação, foram feitas determinações dos metais na solução de equilíbrio. A quantidade de metal adsorvida foi calculada pela diferença entre a concentração adicionada e a remanescente na solução de equilíbrio. A partir dos resultados experimentais, obtiveram-se parâmetros de adsorção derivados dos modelos de Langmuir e de Freundlich, os quais foram correlacionados com atributos físicos, químicos e mineralógicos dos solos. A adequação das equações de Langmuir e de Freundlich aos resultados de adsorção dos quatro metais foi satisfatória e com altos coeficientes de correlação para a maioria das observações. Para todos os solos, as quantidades de Cd, Cu, Ni e Zn adsorvidas foram diretamente proporcionais às doses adicionadas. O Cu apresentou os maiores valores dos parâmetros de adsorção estimados pelos modelos de Langmuir e Freundlich. Os parâmetros adsorção máxima de Langmuir e capacidade adsortiva de Freundlich foram positivamente correlacionados com o pH do solo. Foi observado aumento na adsorção dos metais à medida que aumentou o pH até que fosse atingido um platô. Em altos valores de pH, houve decréscimo na adsorção de alguns metais em alguns solos. A seqüência de adsorção encontrada para a maioria dos solos ao pH 4,5 e 5,5 foi Cu > Cd > Zn > Ni. Ao pH 6,5 a seqüência encontrada na maioria dos solos foi Cd > Zn > Cu > Ni. / The disposal of solid waste or the application of pesticides and fertilizers may increase the concentration of potentially toxic elements, especially heavy metals, in soil and in groundwater. As the soil has been considered a potential deposit for the provision of such wastes, it is important to know the mechanisms of retention and transport of these elements to minimize their impact to the environment. The behavior of a metal in soil may be evaluated through adsorption studies. The effect of pH variation on the adsorption of heavy metals was evaluated, under individual and competitive systems, in samples from the surface layer (0-0.2 m) of 30 representative soils of the State of São Paulo. Adsorption isotherms were prepared after addition of 10 to 200 mg L-1 of Cd, Cu, Ni and Zn in the form of nitrate, and the background electrolyte was a 0.01 mol L-1 NaNO3 solution. The pH effect on metals adsorption was evaluated after adding 20 ml of 0.01 mol L-1 NaNO3 solution with 0.1 mol L-1 of each metal. The adjustment of pH was made or with HNO3 or with NaOH, in order to achieve pH values among 4 to 7. After shaking the samples and subsequent centrifugation, metal concentration was determined in the equilibrium solution. The amount of adsorbed metal was calculated by the difference between the added and the remaining concentration in the equilibrium solution. Adsorption parameters estimated by Langmuir and Freundlich models were obtained with the experimental data and were related with physical, chemical and mineralogical soil attributes. Langmuir and Freundlich models fitted well the adsorption results for the four metals, with high correlation coefficients for the majority of the data. For all soils, adsorbed amounts of Cd, Cu, Ni and Zn were directly correlated to the added doses. Cu had the highest values of adsorption parameters estimated by both Langmuir and Freundlich models. The maximum adsorption from Langmuir model and the adsorption capacity from Freundlich model were positively correlated with soil pH. In The adsorption increased as a result of pH increase until a plateau was achieved. Under high pH values, a decrease in the adsorption of some metals was observed in some soils. The sequence of adsorption found for the majority of the soil pH 4.5 and 5.5 was Cu > Cd > Zn > Ni. For the pH 6.5 the sequence found in most soils was Cd > Zn > Cu > Ni.

Pasture plants already adapted to acidic soil conditions are required as part of an integrated approach (with lime amelioration) to managing acid soils on the Tablelands of New South Wales, Australia. The objective of this thesis is to evaluate the usefulness of Austrodanthonia species for this purpose. The material evaluated in this study was collected during a previous survey of the distribution of Austrodanthonia on the Central, Southern and Monaro Tablelands of New South Wales. It was hypothesised that the genus Austrodanthonia has a wide range of tolerance to acid soils. A series of experiments that provided information on the growth and physiology of Austrodanthonia in relation to soil acidity, with a view to the identification and eventual domestication of the most promising plant material have been conducted through pot, hydroponics and field investigations. Firstly, soils were acidified or limed to obtain a range of soil pH and Al concentrations. This experiment showed that adding aluminium sulfate and calcium carbonate followed by washing excess salts with water is a simple, rapid and convenient method for adjusting soil pH for pot experiments. The pH of the amended soils remained relatively unchanged eight months after treatment. The experimental set-up also resulted in a wide range of soluble Al (2-52 mg/kg) across the soils. The relative Al-tolerance of 183 accessions from 15 Austrodanthonia species was tested in a pot experiment using a range of soil pH. Emergence, survival and growth of all accessions were drastically reduced by high soil acidity (pH 3.9, P < 0.001). About 11% of plants emerged at pH 3.9, whereas at pH 4.4 and 5.3, ~72% of plants emerged. Accessions exhibited large variation within and between species in their tolerance to soil acidity. From the species/accessions tested, 49 accessions from eight species were selected for further study (on the basis of being more acid tolerant). Hydroponic experiments conducted in the glasshouse evaluated: (i) formulation of nutrient solution with a stable pH, (ii) effectiveness of the formulation using tap water and deionised water and (iii) estimation of free ion activities of Al and Mn in the nutrient solution and their effects on Austrodanthonia growth. These experiments showed that a NO3-N/NH4-N ratio of 9:4 is the most appropriate ratio to obtain a stable pH 4.0 without affecting plant growth; that there was little difference between tap water and deionised water on the ionic effects of Al and Mn, and plant-size did not play a role on accession survival and that accessions of Austrodanthonia could grow well within a wide range of pH (3.5-5.5), Al (50-250 �M) and Mn (100-2000 �M). Growth of Austrodanthonia accessions declined under high acidity (pH < 3.5) and Al (300 �M), but tolerated high concentrations of Mn (2000 �M). Root-tips stained with hematoxylin grouped accessions in a similar way to the pot and hydroponic experiments for most of the accessions tested. The intensity of root staining with hematoxylin and the differential distribution of Al in the shoots and roots provided an indication that different tolerance mechanisms may be involved with Austrodanthonia accessions. It appears that both exclusion and internal mechanisms may operate for Al- and Mn-tolerance. A field experiment was conducted at Carcoar (33037�S, 149013�E, elevation 800 m) using gradients in soil pH and Al available on-site to grow selected accessions of Austrodanthonia. The accessions exhibited a range of responses to soil acidity. The accession responses to acidity from the pot and hydroponic experiments were similar to those obtained in the field, especially where Al was present as a low Al-challenge. Overall, this study shows that Austrodanthonia exhibits a wide range of acid tolerance between species and accessions within species. Among the species tested, A. duttoniana and A. fulva appeared to have the greatest commercial potential, because of their productivity and acid tolerance. The variability that exists in the accessions may be exploitable in breeding and selection programs for improved cultivars.

New Zealand is dominated by its agricultural industry with one of the most intensive farming practices being that of intensive dairying. New Zealand currently has approximately 5.3 million dairy cows that excrete up to 2.2 L of urine, per urination event, up to 12 times per day. This equates to 5.1 x10¹⁰ L per year or enough urine to fill over 1.2 million milk tankers. This sheer volume of urine and its associated N content has implications for the cycling of N within the pasture soils utilised, and New Zealand’s greenhouse gas budget due to the emission of N₂O from urine affected areas. The emission of nitric oxide (NO) from agricultural systems is also receiving increasing attention due to concerns about alterations in the balance of atmospheric trace gases and sinks. Worldwide there is a dearth of information with respect to the emissions of NO from urine-N deposition onto soils with only two in situ studies and no studies on the effects of soil pH, environmental variables or urine-N rate on NO fluxes. This present study has provided some fundamental information on the factors and processes affecting the emission of NO from bovine urine applied to pasture soils. Five experiments were performed in total; three laboratory experiments and two field experiments. The first laboratory experiment (chapter 4) examined the effect of the initial soil pH on NOx emissions from urine-N applied at 500 kg N ha⁻¹. Soil was treated to alter the initial soil pH over the range of 4.4 to 7.6. Initial soil pH affected rates of nitrification which in turn affected the decline in soil pH. Emissions of NO increased with increasing soil pH. However, a strong positive linear relationship was established between the NO-N flux, expressed as a percentage of the net NH4⁺-N depletion rate, and the level of soil acidity. The NO-N fluxes were higher under the more acidic soil conditions where N turnover was lower. The fluxes of N₂O did not follow the same pattern and were attributed to biological mechanisms. In experiment two (chapter 5) the objectives were to concurrently examine the effects of varying the soil temperature and the water-filled pore space (WFPS) on NOx emissions from urine-N. In this experiment increasing the soil temperature enhanced both the rate of nitrification and the rate of decrease in soil pH. The relationship between the net NO-N flux, expressed as a percentage of the net NH4⁺-N depletion rate, and the level of soil acidity was again demonstrated at the warmest soil temperature (22°C) where soil acidification had progressed sufficiently to enable abiotic NO formation. The NO-N fluxes increased with decreasing soil moisture and increasing soil acidity indicating abiotic factors were responsible for NO production. The Q10 response of the NO flux between 5 to 15°C decreased from 4.3 to 1.5 as WFPS increased from 11% to 87% respectively. Fluxes of N₂O increased with increasing WFPS and temperature indicating that denitrification was the dominant process. Results from experiments 2 and 3 indicated that the rate of nitrification had a direct bearing on the ensuing soil acidity and that it was this in conjunction with the available inorganic-N pools that affected NOx production. Therefore the third experiment examined the effect of urine-N rate on NOx emissions, with urine-N rate varied over 5 levels from 0 to 1000 kg N ha⁻¹, the highest rate being that found under maximal urine-N inputs to pasture. Rates of nitrification were diminished at the highest rates of urine-N applied and decreases in soil acidity were not as rapid due to this. Again significant but separate linear relationships were developed, for each urine-N rate used, between the NO-N flux, expressed as a percentage of the net NH4⁺-N depletion rate, and the level of soil acidity. The slope of these relationships increased with increasing urine-N rate. The NO-N flux, expressed as a percentage of the net NH4⁺-N depletion rate, versus soil acidity was higher under 1000 kg N ha⁻¹, despite the lower soil acidity in this treatment. This indicated that the enhanced inorganic-N pool was also playing a role in increasing the NO flux. The N₂O fluxes were of limited duration in this experiment possibly due to conditions being disadvantageous for denitrification. In the field experiments two urine-N rates were examined under both summer and winter conditions at two urine-N rates. The emission factors after 71 days for NO-N in the summer were 0.15 and 0.20% of the urine-N applied for the 500 and 1000 kg N ha⁻¹ rates respectively while the respective N₂O-N fluxes were 0.14 and 0.16%. Under winter conditions the emission factors after 42 days for NO-N were <0.001% of the urine-N applied regardless of urine-N rate while the N₂O-N fluxes were 0.05 and 0.09% for the 500 and 1000 kg N ha⁻¹ urine-N rates respectively. The relationships and predictors of NO-N flux determined in the laboratory studies did not serve as strong indicators of the NO-N flux under summer conditions. Low emissions from urine-N over winter were due to the low soil temperatures and high WFPS. These studies have demonstrated that soil chemical and environmental variables influence the production of NOx and N₂O emissions from urine-N applied to soil and that seasonal effects have a significant impact on the relative amounts of NO-N and N₂O-N emitted from urine patches. Suggestions for future work are also made.