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During the maturation of pre-mRNA introns are removed and exons are spliced together, to form a primary transcript, a reaction that is catalyzed by the spliceosome. Alternative splicing is a complex reaction that mainly utilizes one of four mechanisms; exon skipping, 5’ splice site choice, 3’ splice site choice and intron retention. To achieve accurate splicing four sequence elements are essential, two of which are located in the splice sites themselves; 5’ splice sites and 3’ splice sites, but also the polypyrimidine tract and the branch point sequence. Alternative splicing can be regulated by histone or chromatin modulations, siRNA, transcription efficiency and various proteins, many of which belong to either the SR protein family or the hnRNP family of proteins. SR proteins usually promote exon inclusion, while hnRNP proteins usually promote exon skipping. There are also regulatory elements that are called exonic splicing enhancers or silencers depending on if they promote or inhibit the inclusion of the exon they reside in. These elements also exist in introns and are then called intronic splicing enhancers or silencers. The enhancer elements are most commonly targeted by SR proteins and the silencer elements are usually targeted by hnRNP proteins. This paper will mainly focus on the regulation of alternative splicing and the role of alternative splicing under abnormal conditions, such as when mutations cause disease.

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I investigated two aspects of in vivo splicing that are poorly understood: spliceosome disassembly and recycling, and proofreading. To this end, I used the auxin-inducible degron (AID) to individually deplete several splicing factors in budding yeast and then I measured the effect on co-transcriptional spliceosome assembly through chromatin immunoprecipitation. In addition, using RNA next-generation sequencing, I measured the frequency of splicing errors following depletion or mutation of the fidelity factor, Prp22. I show that formation of the pre-spliceosome (the first stage of spliceosome assembly) is rapidly inhibited by global defects in late stages of spliceosome assembly. I demonstrate that this is due to the accumulation of arrested spliceosomes that sequester the splicing machinery and, as a result, causes a recycling defect. This suggests that spliceosomes that lack essential splicing factors are not always properly disassembled and recycled in vivo, and warns about potential systematic secondary effects when perturbing single components of the spliceosome. Secondly, I describe the development of a new version of the AID system for budding yeast, called the B-estradiol AID. To the best of my knowledge, an AID system for budding yeast that is fast-acting, tightly-controlled and gratuitous, was lacking until now. Lastly, I show that absence of Prp22 protein, which was previously proposed to play a role in splicing fidelity, correlates with more mistakes in 3’ss selection of many endogenous intron-containing transcripts in vivo. This provides indirect evidence to suggest that Prp22-dependent splicing proofreading is physiologically important. The data from this analysis will be useful in ongoing studies to try to identify common features that could improve our understanding of the mechanism of Prp22’s function in splicing proofreading.

Contribution de U2AF1, NCBP1 et eIF4A3 dans le contrôle du maintien de la pluripotence et le devenir cellulaire.Les mécanismes de maturation du transcrit primaire peuvent profondément affecter la diversité et la fonction des protéines produites à partir d’un gène unique dans le but de mettre en place un programme complexe impliqué dans le maintien de pluripotence et/ou l’initiation de la différenciation des cellules souches humaines. Les réseaux transcriptionnels régulant la pluripotence et la différenciation ont été intensément étudiés contrairement au rôle de l’épissage alternatif dans ces mécanismes, rôle qui pour le moment reste mal compris et pour lequel il n’existe que très peux d’exemples de groupes de gènes subissant un changement général de variant d’épissage aboutissant à la modification du devenir cellulaire. Notre objectif est d’identifier les composés essentiels du spliceosome qui sont impliqués dans le maintien de la pluripotence et la différenciation précoce dans les trois feuillets embryonnaires et d’explorer leurs rôles dans ces processus. Via l’analyse de données de séquençage d’ARN nous avons identifié plusieurs facteurs d’épissage différentiellement exprimés entre les cellules souches et les trois feuillets embryonnaires. Parmi ces facteurs nous focaliserons notre étude sur les facteurs préférentiellement surexprimés dans les cellules souches, qui par conséquent devraient y jouer un rôle primordial. Les candidats sélectionnés, U2AF1, NCBP1 et eIF4A3 ont été déplétés dans des cellules souches en utilisant un système shRNA inductible puis une analyse de séquençage ARN à haut débit a été effectuée pour comprendre les changements du transcriptome induits par ces déplétions. La déplétion d’U2AF1 entraine un changement majeur de l’expression de gènes impliqués dans le développement alors que la déplétion de NCBP1 et eIF4A3 entraine un changement d’expression de gènes impliqués dans le métabolisme, le remodelage de la chromatine et le développement. Des analyses complémentaires ont permis de mettre en lumière une régulation transcriptionnelle et post-transcriptionnelle des gènes différentiellement exprimés dans les conditions étudiées. L’épissage alternatif a pour ça part été modifié par les trois déplétions de manière individuelle. Un programme d’épissage tissu spécifique a été associé à chaque candidat et les conséquences de chaque programme seront décrites au niveau du contrôle qualité de l’ARNm et de la synthèse protéique.Nos résultats construisent une nouvelle vision concernant le rôle des composés essentiels du spliceosome dans le contrôle du devenir cellulaire à travers la modulation de l’épissage alternatif. Cet apport ajoute une nouvelle variable au contrôle de l’expression des gènes et permettra de mieux comprendre les mécanismes du développement précoce et de la diversité tissulaire. / Contribution of U2AF1, NCBP1 and eIF4A3 to the control of pluripotency maintenance and cell fate determination.Alternative pathways for processing the primary transcript can profoundly affect the diversity and function of the protein products that are generated from a single gene to set up complex programs involved in pluripotency and/or differentiation of human Embryonic Stem Cells (hESCs). While transcriptional networks regulating pluripotency and differentiation has been intensively studied, the role of Alternative Splicing (AS) in this process is not yet completely understood and clear examples of concerted switching of multiple genes from one isoform to another have not been demonstrated. Our goal is to identify Core Spliceosomal Factors (CSF), involved in the control of pluripotency maintenance, early differentiation into the three germ layers, and to explore their role in these processes. By RNA-Seq data analysis, we have identified several splicing factors that are differentially expressed between pluripotent stem cells and the three of the germ layers. Among these identified candidates, we focused on the factors that are more highly expressed in pluripotent stem cells, thereby they play a specific role in pluripotency maintenance. The selected candidates, U2AF1, NCBP1 and eIF4A3 were depleted in pluripotent stem cells using inducible shRNA system and RNA-Seq analyzes have been performed to understand transcriptomic changes induced by these depletions. U2AF1 depletion causes a major switch of developmental genes expression, while NCBP1 and eIF4A3 depletions regulate the expression of genes involved in metabolism, chromatin remodeling and development. Further analysis highlighted a transcriptional and post-transcriptional regulation of differentially expressed genes. Alternative Splicing (AS) were shown to be affected by both depletions. A tissue specific AS program was associated to each of the candidates and the consequences of these changes on mRNA quality control and protein synthesis will be described.Our results build a new idea regarding the role of Core Spliceosomal Factors in cell fate control trough the modulation of AS. This knowledge adds a new layer of gene expression control and will allow a better understanding of early development mechanisms and tissue diversity.

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