B. braunii is a green alga that has attracted attention as a potential renewable fuel source due to its high oil content and the archeological record of its unique contribution to oil and coal shales. Three extant chemotypes of B. braunii have been described, namely race A, race B, and race L, which accumulate alkadienes and alkatrienes, botryococcene and squalene and their methylated derivatives, and lycopadiene, respectively. The methylated triterpenes, particularly botryococcenes, produced by race B can be efficiently converted to high quality combustible fuels and other petrochemicals; however, botryococcene biosynthesis has remained enigmatic. It has been suggested that botryococcene biosynthesis could resemble that of squalene, arising from an initial condensation of two molecules of farnesyl diphosphate (FPP) to form pre-squalene diphosphate (PSPP), which then undergoes a reductive rearrangement to form squalene, or in an alternative reductive rearrangement, botryococcene. Based on the proposed similarities, we predicted that a botryococcene synthase would resemble squalene synthase and hence, isolated squalene synthase-like genes from B. braunii race B. While B. braunii does harbor at least one typical squalene synthase, none of the other three squalene synthase-like (SSL) genes encode for botryococcene biosynthesis directly. SSL-1 catalyzes the biosynthesis of PSPP and SSL-2 the biosynthesis of bisfarnesyl ether and to a lesser extent squalene, while SSL-3 does not appear able to directly utilize FPP as a substrate. However, when SSL-1 is combined with either SSL-2 or SSL-3, in vivo and in vitro, robust squalene or botryococcene biosynthesis was observed, respectively. These findings were unexpected because squalene synthase, an ancient and likely progenitor to the other Botryococcus triterpene synthases, catalyzes a two-step reaction within a single enzyme unit without intermediate release, yet in B. braunii, these activities appear to have separated and evolved inter-dependently for specialized triterpene production. Expression of various configurations of the SSL genes in TN-7 yeast demonstrates that botryococcene can be efficiently produced in a heterologous host. Additionally, three triterpene methyltransferase (TMTs) were isolated which efficiently catalyze the transfer of a methyl group from S-adenosyl methionine (SAM) to either squalene (TMT-1 and TMT-2) or botryococcene (TMT-3) in vivo and in vitro. Co-expression of the various TMT genes with either squalene synthase or botryococcene synthase in TN-7 yeast resulted in the accumulation of C31 and C32 methyl derivatives of squalene or botryococcene, demonstrating their potential for heterologous production. The methylation sites were determined by NMR spectroscopy to be identical to C31 and C32 methyl-derivatives of squalene or botryococcene observed in B. braunii race B. Expression studies of various heterologous squalene synthase genes in S. cerevisiae corroborated an earlier but surprising observation reported in the literature. While the squalene synthase gene of S. cerevisiae was able to complement an erg9 (squalene synthase) knockout in yeast, squalene synthase genes from plants and animals were not. Chemical profiles revealed that squalene accumulated to significant levels in yeast expressing the squalene synthase of plant, animal, or S. cerevisiae. This suggested that it was not the ability of these heterologous synthase enzymes to produce squalene, but their inability to feed squalene into the native sterol biosynthetic pathway that prevented them from restoring normal ergosterol biosynthesis in S. cerevisiae. By examining the ability of chimera squalene synthase enzymes to complement the erg9 mutation, a discrete sequence of amino acids near the C-terminus of the enzyme was identified which is necessary and sufficient for allowing any squalene synthase to restore normal sterol metabolism.

Les nanoparticules de Gemcitabine-Squalène (Gem-Sq), synthétisées suivant le concept de « squalénisation », ont montré des activités anticancéreuses très supérieures à celles obtenues en présence de Gem libre. Néanmoins, leur PEGylation, c’est-à-dire leur décoration par du poly(éthylène glycol)-squalène (PEG-Sq) pour augmenter leur temps de demi-vie plasmatique, s’est avérée infructueuse du fait d’une déstructuration colloïdale. Par ailleurs, aucune stratégie de fonctionnalisation pour effectuer un ciblage actif de cellules cancéreuses, n’est à ce jour disponible. Au cours de cette thèse, nous avons donc cherché à résoudre ces problèmes. Après une étude bibliographique portant sur la conception de nanoparticules de prodrogues lipidiques, dans le but d’établir un constat récent de l’état de l’art dans ce domaine, nous avons proposé une voie de synthèse pour obtenir des nanoparticules multifonctionnelles (i.e., thérapeutique, fluorescentes et ciblées) à base de Gem-Sq, et ce par co-auto-assemblage des composés conjugués de Rhodamine-Sq, Gem-Sq et Biotin-Sq. Ces nanoparticules ont montré une internalisation plus importante dans les cellules cancéreuses et une meilleure efficacité thérapeutique que les nanoparticules de Gem-Sq non-fonctionnalisées. Dans un deuxième temps, nous avons apporté une solution au problème de la PEGylation des nanoparticules de Sq via la synthèse et l’utilisation de composés conjugués de type Gem-poly(méthacrylate de squalène). Ces prodrogues macromoléculaires ont été synthétisées par polymérisation radicalaire contrôlée et plus précisément par la technique RAFT. Les nanoparticules obtenues par auto-assemblage en solution aqueuse sont stables et présentent des activités anticancéreuses importantes sur différentes lignées cellulaires. Leur PEGylation par ajout de Sq-PEG durant la formulation s’est avérée possible et n’a pas conduit à une déstabilisation colloïdale. Enfin, j’ai participé à l’élaboration d’une nouvelle famille de nanoparticules de prodrogues macromoléculaires qui a consisté à faire croitre de courtes chaines de polyisoprène (PI) à partir de la Gem, donnant ainsi des conjugués de type Gem-PI, capables de s’auto-assembler sous la forme de nanoparticules avec une activité anticancéreuse in vitro et in vivo. / Gemcitabine-Squalene (Gem-Sq) nanoparticles have been synthesized from the “squalenoylation” approach and have shown superior anticancer activities compared to those obtained with free Gem. However, their PEGylation, that is their coating with poly(ethylene glycol)-squalene (PEG-Sq) in order to increase their circulation time, has been unsuccessful, leading to colloidal disassembly. In addition, to the best of our knowledge, there is not functionalization strategy yet available to perform active targeting against cancer. During this PhD thesis, we have been looking for solutions to tackle these two important problems. After a littérature survey about the design of lipidic prodrug nanoparticles, in order to establish a pretty accurate picture of the domain, we have reported a synthetic approach towards multifunctional Sq-based nanoparticles (i.e., therapeutic, fluorescent and targeted), through the co-self-assembly of the different Sq-based materials; that is Rhodamine-Sq, Gem-Sq and Biotin-Sq. These nanoparticles have demonstrated a greater internalization into cancer cells and a greater therapeutic effect than non-functionalized Gem-Sq nanoparticles. In the next step, we have provided a solution to the PEGylation issue by synthetizing Gem-poly(squalenoyl methacrylate) macromolecular prodrugs. These materials have been prepared by controlled/living radical polymerization and especially the RAFT technique. The resulting nanoparticles exhibited significant anticancer activities against various cancer cells and can be successfully PEGylated by the addition of Sq-PEG during their formulation. Eventually, I have participated to the design of a new family of macromolecular prodrugs obtained from the growing of short polyisoprene (PI) chains from Gem, leading to Gem-PI nanoparticles after self-assembly of Gem-PI. The nanoparticles led to significant anticancer activity both in vitro and in vivo.

O óleo do fígado de cação-azul tem um valor nutricional elevado e é rico em inúmeras substâncias ativas, tais como o esqualeno, vitamina A e ácidos graxos poli-insaturados. A proposta desta pesquisa foi obter o óleo de fígado de cação-azul (Prionace glauca) sob condições brandas de temperatura usando extração com fluido supercrítico (SFE) e estudar o processo de microencapsulação deste, utilizando o sistema de formação de partículas por soluções ou suspensões em gás saturado (PGSS). Para estudar os parâmetros de extração supercrítica do óleo de cação-azul, utilizou-se em um primeiro momento o fígado de beijupirá (Rachycentron canadum) como modelo e realizou-se extrações supercríticas a diferentes condições de temperatura (T, 50, 60 e 70 °C) e vazão de CO2 (5, 8 e 11 g CO2/min) sob uma mesma pressão (P) de 250 bar. Considerando as condições de maior rendimento, definiu-se para o fígado de cação-azul um delineamento de blocos completos, com 5 níveis de P (100, 150, 200, 250 e 300 bar) e 2 níveis de T (50 e 60°C). Com os diferentes óleos de fígado de cação-azul (OFCA) óleo de fígado de beijupirá (OFB) e óleo de fígado de tubarão comercial (OFTC), foram realizadas medidas físico-químicas (densidade, viscosidade, índice de refração, índice de acidez, valor de peróxido e índice de saponificação) e quantificou-se os ativos de interesse neste estudo, esqualeno, vitamina A e ácidos graxos essenciais. O OFCA com maior teor de esqualeno foi usado para a etapa de formação de micropartículas por meio da técnica PGSS, na qual partículas foram geradas usando como agentes de impregnação amidos modificados (Hi Cap® 100 e Purity Gum Ultra®) e caracterizadas. O OFB apresentou rendimentos distintos quando diferentes condições operacionais foram aplicadas, variando de 40 a 58% e estes resultados contribuíram para a definição das condições de extração do óleo de fígado de cação-azul. As características físico-químicas foram compatíveis com óleos sem refino, destacando-se o elevado teor de acidez (13,6 - 17% expresso como ácido oleico), que se julgou característico deste óleo. Foram encontrados ácidos graxos de elevado valor biológico. Os teores de ácidos graxos monoinsaturados foram de 41,2 a 49 g/ 100 de OFB e ácidos graxos poli-insaturados variaram de 21,8 a 25,3 g/ 100g de OFB. O esqualeno nos óleos variou de 354 a 462 mg/ 100g de OFB, reforçando o potencial desta matriz para diversas aplicações. Os rendimentos das extrações do OFCA variaram de 0 a 60%, considerado, para os maiores valores, superiores aos métodos convencionais. O OFCA apresentou parâmetros físico-químicos como densidade de 0,920 a 0,922 g.mL-1, viscosidade de 52 a 56 Pa.s, índice de refração de 1,4760 a 1,4785, índice de acidez de 1,1 a 2,2% em ácido oleico, valor de peróxido de 10 a 24 meq de O2 ativo/ kg de OFCA e índice de saponificação de 171 a 556 mg KOH/ g de OFCA comparáveis a óleos de pescados refinados. Os ensaios de quantificação de esqualeno e vitamina A indicaram valores de 171 a 534mg de esqualeno/ 100 de OFCA e 579 a 3.682 Retinol equivalente/ g de OFCA. As micropartículas geradas exibiram um considerável índice de retenção de óleo na superfície, de 74 a 82% e, além disso, parâmetros como alta solubilidade e baixa higroscopicidade dos amidos modificados tornam estas partículas amplamente aplicáveis na área de alimentos. O estudo do comportamento dos amidos modificados Hi Cap® 100 e Purity Gum Ultra® em contato com CO2 supercrítico não indicou expansão volumétrica nas amostras sob as condições avaliadas. Embora os óleos extraídos com CO2 supercrítico tivessem características de óleos refinados, as análises de estabilidade das micropartículas mostraram a necessidade de refino para uma maior shelf life do produto. Os teores de esqualeno, composto encontrado em todos os dias e em todos os tratamentos analisados, decresceu ao longo do período de estudo da estabilidade (de 0 a 60 dias). / Blue shark liver oil has a high nutritional value and is rich in numerous active substances, such as squalene, vitamin A, polyunsaturated fatty acids. The purpose of this study was to obtain blue shark liver oil (Prionace glauca) under mild temperature conditions using supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) and to study the microencapsulation process of the oil using the particle formation system from gas saturated solution/suspension (PGSS). To study the supercritical extraction parameters of blue shark liver oil (BSLO), cobia liver (Rachycentron canadum) was used as a model and supercritical extractions were performed at different conditions of temperature (T, 50, 60 and 70 °C) and CO2 flow rate (5, 8 and 11 g CO2/min), under the same pressure (P) of 250 bar. Considering the higher yield conditions, it was set for the blue shark liver one complete block design with 5 levels of P (100, 150, 200, 250 and 300 bar) and 2 T levels (50 and 60 °C). With the different BSLO, cobia liver oil (CLO) and purchased shark liver oil (PSLO), physicochemical measurements (density, viscosity, refractive index, acid number, peroxide value and saponification number) were performed and the active of interest in this study (squalene, vitamin A and essential fatty acids) were quantified. The BSLO with the highest squalene content was used for microparticle formation step by the PGSS technique in which particles were generated using modified starches as impregnation agents (Hi Cap® 100 and Purity Gum Ultra®) and characterized. CLO had different yields, ranging from 40 to 58%, when different operating conditions were applied and these results contributed to the definition of extraction conditions of BSLO. The physicochemical characteristics were consistent with oils without refining, highlighting the high acid content (13.6 to 17% oleic acid), which was considered characteristic of CLO. The CLO has high biological value fatty acids. The levels of monounsaturated fatty acids were 41.2 to 49 g/ 100 of CLO and polyunsaturated fatty acids ranged from 21.8 to 25.3 g/ 100 g of CLO. Squalene in oils ranged 354 - 462 mg/ 100g of CLO, reinforcing the potential of this matrix for several applications. BSLO yields of extractions ranged 0-60%, considered for the highest values superior to conventional methods. BSLO showed physicochemical parameters such as density from 0.920 to 0.922 g.mL-1, viscosity from 52 to 56 Pa.s, refractive index of 1.4760 to 1.4785, acid number from 1.1 to 2.2% oleic acid, peroxide value from 10 to 24 meq of active O2/ kg of BSLO and saponification number of 171-534 mg KOH/ kg of BSLO comparable to refined fish oils. The squalene and vitamin quantification assays indicated values of 161.30 to 542.55 mg of squalene/ 100g of BSLO and 579-3,682 retinol equivalent/ g of BSLO. The generated microparticles showed considerable oil retention index on the surface, 74-82% and, in addition, parameters such as low hygroscopicity and high solubility of modified starches makes these particles widely applicable in the food area. The behavior study of modified starches Hi Cap® 100 and Purity Gum Ultra® in contact with supercritical CO2 has not indicated volumetric expansion in the samples under the conditions evaluated. Although the oil extracted with supercritical CO2 had refined oils characteristics, analyzes the stability of the microparticles showed the necessity of refining for greater shelf life of the product. Squalene found decreased along the stability study period (0 to 60 days), however, it was found in every day and analyzed in all treatments. The squalene content, the compound found in every day and for all treatments analyzed, decreased along the stability study period (0 to 60 days).

Introdução. O amaranto é um pseudocereal de alto valor nutritivo, além de apresentar propriedade de redução do colesterol plasmático. O conteúdo lipídico de seus grãos é superior ao dos cereais comuns, com elevado teor de ácidos graxos insaturados, além de apresentar quantidade significante de esqualeno, um dos possíveis compostos bioativos responsáveis pela redução do colesterol. Objetivo. Verificar o efeito do óleo de amaranto e do esqualeno no metabolismo lipídico de hamsters alimentados com gordura saturada e colesterol. Metodologia. O óleo de amaranto foi extraído por solvente orgânico (n-hexano) e analisado nos seus conteúdos de esqualeno. O potencial efeito hipocolesterolemizante deste óleo foi avaliado mediante um ensaio biológico, em que foram utilizados 40 hamsters recémdesmamados. Os animais foram divididos em 4 grupos de 10, diferenciados pelas dietas: controle [dieta normal com 20% de óleo de milho] (C), hipercolesterolêmica [dieta com 12% de gordura de côco, 8% de óleo de milho e 0,1% de colesterol] (H), óleo de amaranto [idêntica à (H) com óleo de amaranto substituindo o de milho] (A) e esqualeno [idêntica à (H) + esqualeno na proporção encontrada no óleo de amaranto] (E), formuladas segundo as recomendações da NRC (1995) e AIN-93. Após 28 dias de experimento, os animais tiveram o sangue coletado por punção cardíaca, sob anestesia, sendo determinados o colesterol total, triglicérides, HDL-c e colesterol não-HDL plasmáticos. Após sacrifício, os fígados dos animais foram coletados para a realização da análise histológica e do teor de colesterol. Também foram determinados os teores de colesterol e ácidos biliares das fezes dos animais. Resultados. Não houve diferença estatisticamente significante no perfil lipídico e excreção fecal de colesterol dos animais dos grupos hipercolesterolêmico, óleo de amaranto e esqualeno. A excreção fecal de ácidos biliares foi maior nos animais dos grupos óleo de amaranto e esqualeno em comparação com os grupos controle e hipercolesterolêmico. O teor de colesterol hepático dos animais do grupo esqualeno foi maior em relação aos outros grupos, embora tenha se diferenciado estatisticamente apenas do grupo controle. Em relação à análise histológica hepática, os maiores graus de esteatose e inflamação parenquimatosa foram os dos grupos óleo de amaranto e esqualeno. Conclusões. O óleo de amaranto e o seu componente esqualeno não apresentaram efeito hipocolesterolemizante e promoveram um aumento da excreção de ácidos biliares em hamsters alimentados com dieta contendo elevadas quantidades de gordura saturada e colesterol. / Introduction: Amaranth is a pseudo cereal of superior nutritional value, besides its property of reducing serum cholesterol. The lipid content of the grains is higher than common cereals, with high content of unsaturated fatty acids. Amaranth also presents significant amounts of squalene, a possible bioactive compound responsible for lowering cholesterol. Objective: To investigate the effect of amaranth oil and squalene on lipid metabolism in hamsters fed with saturated fat and cholesterol. Methodology: The amaranth oil was extracted by organic solvent (n-hexane) and its content of squalene was determined. The potential hypocholesterolemic effect of this oil was evaluated by a bioassay, which employed 40 weanling hamsters. The animals were divided into four groups of 10, differentiated by the diets: control [normal diet with 20% corn oil] (C), hypercholesterolemic [diet with 12% fat coconut, 8% corn oil, and 0.1% cholesterol] (H) amaranth oil [identical to (H) with amaranth oil replacing corn oil] (A) and squalene [identical to (H) + squalene in the proportion found in the amaranth oil] (E). They were all formulated according to the recommendations of NRC (1995) and AIN-93. After 28 days, the animals had blood collected by cardiac puncture, under anesthesia, being measured total cholesterol, triglycerides, HDL-C and plasma non-HDL cholesterol. After sacrifice, the livers of animals were collected for histological analysis and determination of cholesterol content. We also determined the levels of cholesterol and bile acids in the feces of animals. Results: There was no statistically significant difference in lipid profile and fecal excretion of cholesterol from animals in the hypercholesterolemic, amaranth oil and squalene groups. Fecal excretion of bile acids was higher in animals in groups of amaranth oil and squalene as compared with the control group and hypercholesterolemic group. The cholesterol content in liver of the animals from squalene group was higher compared to other groups, although this difference was not statistically significant except when compared to the control group. The highest grade of steatosis and parenchymal inflammation were found in the groups of amaranth oil and squalene. Conclusions: The amaranth oil and its component squalene had no effect hypocholesterolemic and promoted an increased excretion of bile acids in hamsters fed a diet containing high amounts of saturated fat and cholesterol.

Introdução. O amaranto é um pseudocereal de alto valor nutritivo, além de apresentar propriedade de redução do colesterol plasmático. O conteúdo lipídico de seus grãos é superior ao dos cereais comuns, com elevado teor de ácidos graxos insaturados, além de apresentar quantidade significante de esqualeno, um dos possíveis compostos bioativos responsáveis pela redução do colesterol. Objetivo. Verificar o efeito do óleo de amaranto e do esqualeno no metabolismo lipídico de hamsters alimentados com gordura saturada e colesterol. Metodologia. O óleo de amaranto foi extraído por solvente orgânico (n-hexano) e analisado nos seus conteúdos de esqualeno. O potencial efeito hipocolesterolemizante deste óleo foi avaliado mediante um ensaio biológico, em que foram utilizados 40 hamsters recémdesmamados. Os animais foram divididos em 4 grupos de 10, diferenciados pelas dietas: controle [dieta normal com 20% de óleo de milho] (C), hipercolesterolêmica [dieta com 12% de gordura de côco, 8% de óleo de milho e 0,1% de colesterol] (H), óleo de amaranto [idêntica à (H) com óleo de amaranto substituindo o de milho] (A) e esqualeno [idêntica à (H) + esqualeno na proporção encontrada no óleo de amaranto] (E), formuladas segundo as recomendações da NRC (1995) e AIN-93. Após 28 dias de experimento, os animais tiveram o sangue coletado por punção cardíaca, sob anestesia, sendo determinados o colesterol total, triglicérides, HDL-c e colesterol não-HDL plasmáticos. Após sacrifício, os fígados dos animais foram coletados para a realização da análise histológica e do teor de colesterol. Também foram determinados os teores de colesterol e ácidos biliares das fezes dos animais. Resultados. Não houve diferença estatisticamente significante no perfil lipídico e excreção fecal de colesterol dos animais dos grupos hipercolesterolêmico, óleo de amaranto e esqualeno. A excreção fecal de ácidos biliares foi maior nos animais dos grupos óleo de amaranto e esqualeno em comparação com os grupos controle e hipercolesterolêmico. O teor de colesterol hepático dos animais do grupo esqualeno foi maior em relação aos outros grupos, embora tenha se diferenciado estatisticamente apenas do grupo controle. Em relação à análise histológica hepática, os maiores graus de esteatose e inflamação parenquimatosa foram os dos grupos óleo de amaranto e esqualeno. Conclusões. O óleo de amaranto e o seu componente esqualeno não apresentaram efeito hipocolesterolemizante e promoveram um aumento da excreção de ácidos biliares em hamsters alimentados com dieta contendo elevadas quantidades de gordura saturada e colesterol. / Introduction: Amaranth is a pseudo cereal of superior nutritional value, besides its property of reducing serum cholesterol. The lipid content of the grains is higher than common cereals, with high content of unsaturated fatty acids. Amaranth also presents significant amounts of squalene, a possible bioactive compound responsible for lowering cholesterol. Objective: To investigate the effect of amaranth oil and squalene on lipid metabolism in hamsters fed with saturated fat and cholesterol. Methodology: The amaranth oil was extracted by organic solvent (n-hexane) and its content of squalene was determined. The potential hypocholesterolemic effect of this oil was evaluated by a bioassay, which employed 40 weanling hamsters. The animals were divided into four groups of 10, differentiated by the diets: control [normal diet with 20% corn oil] (C), hypercholesterolemic [diet with 12% fat coconut, 8% corn oil, and 0.1% cholesterol] (H) amaranth oil [identical to (H) with amaranth oil replacing corn oil] (A) and squalene [identical to (H) + squalene in the proportion found in the amaranth oil] (E). They were all formulated according to the recommendations of NRC (1995) and AIN-93. After 28 days, the animals had blood collected by cardiac puncture, under anesthesia, being measured total cholesterol, triglycerides, HDL-C and plasma non-HDL cholesterol. After sacrifice, the livers of animals were collected for histological analysis and determination of cholesterol content. We also determined the levels of cholesterol and bile acids in the feces of animals. Results: There was no statistically significant difference in lipid profile and fecal excretion of cholesterol from animals in the hypercholesterolemic, amaranth oil and squalene groups. Fecal excretion of bile acids was higher in animals in groups of amaranth oil and squalene as compared with the control group and hypercholesterolemic group. The cholesterol content in liver of the animals from squalene group was higher compared to other groups, although this difference was not statistically significant except when compared to the control group. The highest grade of steatosis and parenchymal inflammation were found in the groups of amaranth oil and squalene. Conclusions: The amaranth oil and its component squalene had no effect hypocholesterolemic and promoted an increased excretion of bile acids in hamsters fed a diet containing high amounts of saturated fat and cholesterol.

Terpenes comprise a large diverse class of natural products and many of them attract interest because of their physiological function, therapeutic and industrial values. Triterpene oils including squalene (C30), botrycococcene (C30) and their methylated derivatives (C31-C37) generated by the green algae Botryococcus braunii race B, which have recently received significant attention because of their utility for advanced biofuels. However, the slow growth habit of B. braunii makes it impractical as a robust biofuel production system. In this thesis, we firstly evaluated the potential of generating high levels of triterpene (C30) production in tobacco plants by diverting carbon flux from cytosolic MVA pathway or plastidic MEP pathway by overexpressing avian farnesyl diphosphate synthase along with triterpene synthase targeted to the cytoplasm or the chloroplast of cells. Up to 1,000 µg/g fresh weight of squalene and 544 µg/g fresh weight of botryococcene was achieved in our transgenic plants with this metabolism direct to the chloroplasts, which is about approximately 100-times greater than that accumulating in the plants engineered for cytosolic production. To test if methylated triterpenes can be produced in tobacco, we also engineered triterpene methyltransferases (TMTs) into wild type plants and transgenic tobacco plants selected for high level triterpene accumulation. We observed that up to 91% of the total triterpene content was converted to methylated forms (C31, C32) by targeting the TMTs to the chloroplasts of transgenic plants, whereas only 4-14% of total triterpenes were methylated when TMTs were directed to the cytoplasm. Select transgenic lines were growing in field studies from 2011 to 2014 to evaluate their physiological performance under field conditions. Surprisingly, the field studies suggested that the growth and agronomic performance of the transgenic lines accumulating squalene were not compromised, while those accumulating high levels of botryococcene were only 72%-76% as tall, had about 59%-75% of the leaf area, and about 55%-75% of the biomass as wild type plants. Yet, these transgenic plants had photosynthetic capacity equal to the wild type plants.

No description available.

O óleo do fígado de cação-azul tem um valor nutricional elevado e é rico em inúmeras substâncias ativas, tais como o esqualeno, vitamina A e ácidos graxos poli-insaturados. A proposta desta pesquisa foi obter o óleo de fígado de cação-azul (Prionace glauca) sob condições brandas de temperatura usando extração com fluido supercrítico (SFE) e estudar o processo de microencapsulação deste, utilizando o sistema de formação de partículas por soluções ou suspensões em gás saturado (PGSS). Para estudar os parâmetros de extração supercrítica do óleo de cação-azul, utilizou-se em um primeiro momento o fígado de beijupirá (Rachycentron canadum) como modelo e realizou-se extrações supercríticas a diferentes condições de temperatura (T, 50, 60 e 70 °C) e vazão de CO2 (5, 8 e 11 g CO2/min) sob uma mesma pressão (P) de 250 bar. Considerando as condições de maior rendimento, definiu-se para o fígado de cação-azul um delineamento de blocos completos, com 5 níveis de P (100, 150, 200, 250 e 300 bar) e 2 níveis de T (50 e 60°C). Com os diferentes óleos de fígado de cação-azul (OFCA) óleo de fígado de beijupirá (OFB) e óleo de fígado de tubarão comercial (OFTC), foram realizadas medidas físico-químicas (densidade, viscosidade, índice de refração, índice de acidez, valor de peróxido e índice de saponificação) e quantificou-se os ativos de interesse neste estudo, esqualeno, vitamina A e ácidos graxos essenciais. O OFCA com maior teor de esqualeno foi usado para a etapa de formação de micropartículas por meio da técnica PGSS, na qual partículas foram geradas usando como agentes de impregnação amidos modificados (Hi Cap® 100 e Purity Gum Ultra®) e caracterizadas. O OFB apresentou rendimentos distintos quando diferentes condições operacionais foram aplicadas, variando de 40 a 58% e estes resultados contribuíram para a definição das condições de extração do óleo de fígado de cação-azul. As características físico-químicas foram compatíveis com óleos sem refino, destacando-se o elevado teor de acidez (13,6 - 17% expresso como ácido oleico), que se julgou característico deste óleo. Foram encontrados ácidos graxos de elevado valor biológico. Os teores de ácidos graxos monoinsaturados foram de 41,2 a 49 g/ 100 de OFB e ácidos graxos poli-insaturados variaram de 21,8 a 25,3 g/ 100g de OFB. O esqualeno nos óleos variou de 354 a 462 mg/ 100g de OFB, reforçando o potencial desta matriz para diversas aplicações. Os rendimentos das extrações do OFCA variaram de 0 a 60%, considerado, para os maiores valores, superiores aos métodos convencionais. O OFCA apresentou parâmetros físico-químicos como densidade de 0,920 a 0,922 g.mL-1, viscosidade de 52 a 56 Pa.s, índice de refração de 1,4760 a 1,4785, índice de acidez de 1,1 a 2,2% em ácido oleico, valor de peróxido de 10 a 24 meq de O2 ativo/ kg de OFCA e índice de saponificação de 171 a 556 mg KOH/ g de OFCA comparáveis a óleos de pescados refinados. Os ensaios de quantificação de esqualeno e vitamina A indicaram valores de 171 a 534mg de esqualeno/ 100 de OFCA e 579 a 3.682 Retinol equivalente/ g de OFCA. As micropartículas geradas exibiram um considerável índice de retenção de óleo na superfície, de 74 a 82% e, além disso, parâmetros como alta solubilidade e baixa higroscopicidade dos amidos modificados tornam estas partículas amplamente aplicáveis na área de alimentos. O estudo do comportamento dos amidos modificados Hi Cap® 100 e Purity Gum Ultra® em contato com CO2 supercrítico não indicou expansão volumétrica nas amostras sob as condições avaliadas. Embora os óleos extraídos com CO2 supercrítico tivessem características de óleos refinados, as análises de estabilidade das micropartículas mostraram a necessidade de refino para uma maior shelf life do produto. Os teores de esqualeno, composto encontrado em todos os dias e em todos os tratamentos analisados, decresceu ao longo do período de estudo da estabilidade (de 0 a 60 dias). / Blue shark liver oil has a high nutritional value and is rich in numerous active substances, such as squalene, vitamin A, polyunsaturated fatty acids. The purpose of this study was to obtain blue shark liver oil (Prionace glauca) under mild temperature conditions using supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) and to study the microencapsulation process of the oil using the particle formation system from gas saturated solution/suspension (PGSS). To study the supercritical extraction parameters of blue shark liver oil (BSLO), cobia liver (Rachycentron canadum) was used as a model and supercritical extractions were performed at different conditions of temperature (T, 50, 60 and 70 °C) and CO2 flow rate (5, 8 and 11 g CO2/min), under the same pressure (P) of 250 bar. Considering the higher yield conditions, it was set for the blue shark liver one complete block design with 5 levels of P (100, 150, 200, 250 and 300 bar) and 2 T levels (50 and 60 °C). With the different BSLO, cobia liver oil (CLO) and purchased shark liver oil (PSLO), physicochemical measurements (density, viscosity, refractive index, acid number, peroxide value and saponification number) were performed and the active of interest in this study (squalene, vitamin A and essential fatty acids) were quantified. The BSLO with the highest squalene content was used for microparticle formation step by the PGSS technique in which particles were generated using modified starches as impregnation agents (Hi Cap® 100 and Purity Gum Ultra®) and characterized. CLO had different yields, ranging from 40 to 58%, when different operating conditions were applied and these results contributed to the definition of extraction conditions of BSLO. The physicochemical characteristics were consistent with oils without refining, highlighting the high acid content (13.6 to 17% oleic acid), which was considered characteristic of CLO. The CLO has high biological value fatty acids. The levels of monounsaturated fatty acids were 41.2 to 49 g/ 100 of CLO and polyunsaturated fatty acids ranged from 21.8 to 25.3 g/ 100 g of CLO. Squalene in oils ranged 354 - 462 mg/ 100g of CLO, reinforcing the potential of this matrix for several applications. BSLO yields of extractions ranged 0-60%, considered for the highest values superior to conventional methods. BSLO showed physicochemical parameters such as density from 0.920 to 0.922 g.mL-1, viscosity from 52 to 56 Pa.s, refractive index of 1.4760 to 1.4785, acid number from 1.1 to 2.2% oleic acid, peroxide value from 10 to 24 meq of active O2/ kg of BSLO and saponification number of 171-534 mg KOH/ kg of BSLO comparable to refined fish oils. The squalene and vitamin quantification assays indicated values of 161.30 to 542.55 mg of squalene/ 100g of BSLO and 579-3,682 retinol equivalent/ g of BSLO. The generated microparticles showed considerable oil retention index on the surface, 74-82% and, in addition, parameters such as low hygroscopicity and high solubility of modified starches makes these particles widely applicable in the food area. The behavior study of modified starches Hi Cap® 100 and Purity Gum Ultra® in contact with supercritical CO2 has not indicated volumetric expansion in the samples under the conditions evaluated. Although the oil extracted with supercritical CO2 had refined oils characteristics, analyzes the stability of the microparticles showed the necessity of refining for greater shelf life of the product. Squalene found decreased along the stability study period (0 to 60 days), however, it was found in every day and analyzed in all treatments. The squalene content, the compound found in every day and for all treatments analyzed, decreased along the stability study period (0 to 60 days).

L’adénosine est une molécule dotée d’un fort potentiel thérapeutique, mais présentant néanmoins un temps de demi-vie plasmatique extrêmement court qui limite de manière sérieuse son efficacité. Comme présenté dans l’introduction bibliographique de cette thèse, cette difficulté peut être surmontée grâce à l’utilisation de systèmes de délivrance de médicaments à base de lipides. L’adénosine peut en effet être soit encapsulée dans des liposomes, soit simplement couplée à un lipide. Parmi les « lipidizations » de l’adénosine, la « squalénisation », notamment, a favorablement modifié la biodistribution de cette substance active. Cette technique consiste à coupler l’adénosine à une molécule lipophile dérivée du squalène, générant ainsi des bioconjugués ayant la capacité de s’auto-assembler spontanément en milieu aqueux sous forme de nanoparticules d’une centaine de nanomètres de diamètre. L’injection de ces nanoparticules d’adénosine-squalène (AdSQ) par voie intraveineuse a donné des résultats très prometteurs pour le traitement de l’ischémie cérébrale et du traumatisme de la moëlle épinière. Ainsi, l’objectif de cette thèse a consisté à faire progresser le développement pré-clinique de ces nanomédicaments suivant deux axes principaux: l’étude du mécanisme d’action et l’amélioration de la formulation.De ce fait, le premier chapitre de cette thèse présente les résultats obtenus lors de l’étude in vitro du mécanisme d’action des nanoparticules d’AdSQ. Les travaux ont montré que ces nanoparticules d’AdSQ n’interagissaient pas directement avec les récepteurs à l’adénosine, mais formaient un réservoir intracellulaire d’adénosine. En effet, après internalisation, le bioconjugué d’AdSQ est clivé pour libérer l’adénosine. Celle-ci finit par être effluée par les cellules vers le milieu extracellulaire, où elle peut ainsi activer les récepteurs spécifiques situés au niveau des membranes des cellules avoisinantes. Après étude du mécanisme, l’amélioration de la formulation de ces nanoparticules a été explorée et décrite dans le deuxième chapitre. Les efforts ont été principalement concentrés sur la lyophilisation de la suspension nanoparticulaire, afin de proposer une formulation stable dans le temps et facile d’utilisation dans le cadre médical. Les conditions utilisées ont abouti au bon maintien des propriétés physico-chimiques des nanoparticules et l’obtention de solutions injectables sans risque chez l’animal. Dans son ensemble, ce travail de thèse a permis d’élargir les perspectives d’application des nanoparticules d’AdSQ grâce à une meilleure compréhension de leur mécanisme d’action ainsi que la mise au point d’une formulation plus adaptée aux besoins cliniques. / Adenosine has a high therapeutic potential but its extremely short half-life in blood seriously impairs its efficacy. As presented in the literature review, this difficulty can be overcome by using lipid-based drug delivery systems. Indeed, adenosine can be encapsulated into liposomes or conjugated to a lipid. In particular, among adenosine « lipidizations », the so-called « squalenoylation » has been shown to enhance adenosine biodistribution. This technique consists in coupling adenosine to a lipophilic squalene derivative, thus generating bioconjugates which are able to spontaneously self-assemble as nanoparticles of 100 nm of diameter in aqueous solution. Intravenous injection of these squalene-adenosine (SQAd) nanoparticles led to highly promising results for the treatment of cerebral ischemia and spinal cord injury. Thus, the aim of this thesis was to push forward the pre-clinical development of these nanomedicines following two main directions: unveiling their mechanism of action and enhancing their formulation.Thereby, the first chapter of this thesis presents the results from in vitro study on SQAd nanoparticles mechanism of action. This work has shown that SQAd nanoparticles did not interact directly with adenosine receptors, but formed an intracellular reservoir of adenosine. Indeed, after internalisation, SQAd bioconjugates acted as prodrugs by releasing free adenosine. This molecule was then efflued out of the cells into the extracellular medium, where it could activate specific membrane receptors on neighbouring cells. After studying the mechanism of action, we explored how to optimize the formulation. Results are described in the second chapter. We focus our efforts on freeze-drying the nanoparticles suspension, in order to offer a stable and easy-to-use formulation. Pre-formulation studies were conducted in order to define the optimal conditions for the preservation of nanoparticles physico-chemical properties and for an easy reconstitution of these nanoparticles suspension which can thus be safely injected intravenously. Overall, this work has widen the field of applications for SQAd nanoparticles thanks to a better understanding of their mechanism of action and the development of a formulation which is more suited to clinical needs.

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is the third leading cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide with a five-year survival rate of only 9%. The mevalonate (MVA) pathway, which results in synthesis of cholesterol, has been demonstrated to be overexpressed in numerous cancers, leading to its involvement in various aspects of the disease, including proliferation, invasion, and metastasis. In recent years, the MVA pathway has been implicated in PDAC as well, however the underlying mechanisms behind its upregulation in this context, as well as its role in tumor progression, remain largely unknown. An initial analysis of The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) datasets using the Gene Expression Profiling Interactive Analysis (GEPIA) tool revealed one mevalonic gene in particular, SQLE—encoding squalene epoxidase (SQLE)—to be significantly overexpressed in PDAC compared to other genes within the pathway. We find that patients with higher SQLE expression profiles have significantly reduced five-year survival rates that can be further correlated to tumor stage and grade, and we demonstrate that knockdown of SQLE, a branchpoint enzyme of the cholesterol pathway, reduces tumor proliferation in both two-dimensional and three-dimensional assays. We further characterize the SQLE promoter landscape by demonstrating an interesting dynamic of gene activation between the sterol regulatory element binding protein-2 (SREBP2), BRG1-specific SWI/SNF chromatin remodelers, and mutant p53. These results highlight SQLE as a therapeutic target in PDAC and provide a better understanding of its regulation in the context of this devastating disease.