This thesis presents an analysis of the structure and function of cleft constructions in discourse. Drawing on a corpus of naturally-occurring spoken and written data, we present a multi-layered explanation of how it-clefts, wh-clefts, and reverse wh-clefts are different from non-clefts, and from one another. After a review of previous research on clefts in discourse, we explore the aspects of syntax, semantics, and pragmatics relevant to the structure and function of all three types of cleft. The discussion falls into three main parts: An analysis of the three cleft types, within the framework of Generalized Phrase Structure Grammar (cf. Gazdar et al. [1985]), in which particular attention is paid to the variety of constituents that can appear in particular positions in each type. The output of the grammar rules is compared to the examples that occur in the corpus of data. A treatment of cleft presupposition in terms of an analogy (suggested by van der Sandt [1988]) between presupposition and the treatment of pronominal anaphora in Kamp's [1981] Discourse Representation Theory An examination of the range of accentual patterns, presuppositional relations, and information structures typically appearing in clefts of all three kinds. We show that marked distinctions exist between the three cleft types in terms of all these factors, and suggest ways in which this helps to differentiate the range of discourse contexts in which clefts in general, and each cleft type in particular, are appropriate. At the end of the thesis we point to an analogy between the formal model for clefts presented and a psychological model of sentence processing We also suggest how the conclusions regarding both the structure and function of clefts as a class of construction and the distinction between the three types of cleft could be synthesised in a decision procedure for syntactic choice. Finally, we suggest some related areas for further research.

The nature of the auditor-client relationship is a complex aggregate involving a number of groups and individuals between both parties. Although auditor-client relationship is an important subject in the accounting and auditing literature, what has not been extensively studied is the complex relationship between the clients accounting staff and the external audit group at subordinate organization level. Thus, the purpose of this study is to dig deeper into the relationship between clients accounting staff and external audit team consisting of junior and senior auditors and to find out what characterizes this relationship. We also aim to look it from knowledge management and trust perspectives since these are special characteristics of both professions. In order to find empirical results we conducted a qualitative research with a case study by interviewing three accountants and one controller in the same mother company who do financial work for four subsidiaries. They all work together with several auditor groups and therefore could provide us a good comparison to our results. Our study reveals that the relationship is maintained on the subordinate level by the senior auditor who works not only as an auditor but also as a relationship manager. Furthermore, we identify the fact that lower competence of junior auditors creates problems in relationship with client’s accountants. Therefore, our accountant respondents are more likely to allocate low trust to inexperienced junior auditors, specially due to the fact that accountants are the ones teaching the junior auditors in specific accounting issues which is time consuming and often leads to irritation on the accountants side. However, accountants’ trust towards the senior auditors turns out to be high due to recognized expertise knowledge of senior auditors based on our interviews.

La cataphore demeure un phénomène sous-documenté par rapport à l’anaphore. Les travaux en grammaire générative expliquent la coindexation cataphorique des pronoms en termes syntaxiques. D’autres études avancent que les SN possessifs et les pronoms sujets cataphoriques obéissent à des choix stylistiques ou s’inscrivent dans une procédure de rappel du référent (Kuno, 1975). Des études sur corpus en anglais (Carden, 1982 ; Van Hoek 1997) invalident cette thèse et montrent que la majorité des expressions cataphoriques apparaissent dans des subordonnées circonstancielles antéposées (comme "before" et "when") et dans des SP antéposés. En français, il n’existe pas d’études sur la fréquence des pronoms cataphoriques. A partir d’un corpus constitué de textes extraits du Monde Diplomatique 1984-1998, nous donnons un aperçu de la fréquence des pronoms cataphoriques dans des subordonnées antéposées introduites par "quand" et "bien que", et nous les distinguons des pronoms anaphoriques. Nous dégageons aussi les contextes dans lesquels apparaissent les pronoms cataphoriques et les pronoms anaphoriques. / Cataphoric reference or backwards anaphora has received less attention than anaphoric reference. Generative grammar explains cataphoric pronouns in terms of syntactic constraints. Other studies have suggested that SN possessive and subject cataphoric pronoums correspond to stylistic choices or are used to recall referents that have been mentioned in the previous discourse (Kuno, 1975). Studies of naturally occurring cataphora in English (Carden 1982 ; De Hoek, 1997) invalidate this thesis and report that the majority of cataphoric forms appear in subordinate clauses introduced by temporal connectives (such as "before", "when") and in preposed phrases. In French, there are no studies about the occurrence of natural cataphoric pronouns. In a study based on texts of Le Monde Diplomatique 1984-1998, we account for the frequency of cataphoric pronouns in subordinate clauses introduced by "quand" and "bien que", and we distinguish those pronouns from anaphoric pronouns in the same configuration. We also show the context in which each kind of pronoun appears.

DANTAS, Antônio Ademilton Pinheiro. Estudo da movimentação ocular de alunos do 9º ano do ensino fundamental durante a leitura de sentenças coordenadas sindéticas adversativas e subordinadas adverbiais concessivas. 2016. 123f. – Dissertação (Mestrado) – Universidade Federal do Ceará, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Letras, Fortaleza (CE), 2016. / Submitted by Gustavo Daher (gdaherufc@hotmail.com) on 2017-05-26T15:39:43Z No. of bitstreams: 1 2016_dis_aapdantas.pdf: 835786 bytes, checksum: 509e2d0fc3f2db5def0afd69b3f5f751 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Márcia Araújo (marcia_m_bezerra@yahoo.com.br) on 2017-05-29T11:04:42Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 2016_dis_aapdantas.pdf: 835786 bytes, checksum: 509e2d0fc3f2db5def0afd69b3f5f751 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-05-29T11:04:42Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 2016_dis_aapdantas.pdf: 835786 bytes, checksum: 509e2d0fc3f2db5def0afd69b3f5f751 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016 / Investigates if the cost of the processing of coordinate clauses is higher than the cost of the processing of subordinate clauses in a group of 9th grade students. In Engelkamp and Rummer (2002) and Rummer, Engelkamp and Konieczny (2003), it was observed that the processing of subordinate clauses is less costly than the coordinate ones in tasks of memorization, as suggested that the displacement of the subordinate clause influences the costs of the processing. Such results were confronted with the exercise of teaching subordinate conjunctions to 9th graders, which ended up with the proposal of this research. The expectation is that the students would have more difficulties in reading subordinate clauses due to the lack of knowledge of the logical relation served by the conjunction. Given the variability of the logical relations and the lack of time for the execution of this research, we could investigate only the relations of opposition and concession. To do so, three experiments of eye tracking were developed: (i) the first one investigated the cost of reading processing of subordinate clause displacement; (ii) the second one compared the reading process of coordinate and subordinate clauses; (iii) and the third one observed the importance of four different conjunctions in coordinate clauses. Twenty-four experimental items, made up of conditions, were created, which contemplated, all together, the three experiments listed above: four subordinate clauses, two without and two with displacement, which used the conjunctions “embora” (although) and “ainda que” (even if); four coordinate clauses, which used the conjunctions “entretanto” (however), “mas” (but), “no entanto” (yet) and “e” (and). A question of control of attention followed all clauses. Forty-two 9th graders and forty proficient adult readers participated in the experiment. The observed measurements were the total time of reading of the complete clauses, and the time of the first reading in the complete sentence/clause. For experiment one (subordinate displacement), measuring the first reading, an interaction between group and displacement was found (F=4,06, p = 0.04), besides the main effect for displacement (p<0.001), but group effect was not observed. For total time measurement, only main group effect was found (p<0.001). For the study of the processing of the coordinate and subordinate clauses (experiment two), main group effects were found for the first reading and the total reading time (p=0.04 e p<0.001). In the study of coordinate conjunctions, we observed an important difference for each conjunction in the first reading (p=0.006), but not in the total time of reading. There was significant difference in the total time of reading for the group (p<0.001). The results suggest that the group of students read in a different way and more slowly than the adult group, but this measurement is nor sensitive to coordinate and subordinate clauses. However, the displacement of the subordinate clause to the front position of the sentence generates a higher cost of processing for the students, suggesting that the school learning of this topic is relevant for the coating of the information in the subordinate clause. For the study of the conjunctions, it was observed that the first reading is sensitive to the length of the conjunction, because the conjunction “e” (and) has a time of processing faster in the total time of the reading, which is quite different from the conjunction “mas” (but), which shows clear adversative relationship given its frequency of use. / Investiga o custo de processamento de sentenças coordenadas e de sentenças subordinadas em um grupo de estudantes do 9º ano do Ensino Fundamental (EF). Em Engelkamp e Rummer (2002) e Rummer, Engelkamp e Konieczny (2003), observou-se que o processamento de sentenças subordinadas é menos custoso do que o de sentenças coordenadas em tarefas de memorização. Os resultados de Rummer, Engelkamp e Konieczny (2003) também sugeriram que o deslocamento da sentença subordinada interfere nos custos de processamento. Tais achados entram em confronto com impressões do autor derivadas do exercício da prática docente de ensino de conjunções subordinadas ao 9º ano do EF, o que culminou para a proposição desta pesquisa. Foram elaborados experimentos cuja previsão era a de que os estudantes teriam mais dificuldade de ler sentenças subordinadas, uma dificuldade decorrente do pouco conhecimento da relação lógica veiculada pelas conjunções. Dada a variabilidade das relações lógicas e o escasso tempo de execução desta pesquisa, foram investigadas aqui apenas as relações de oposição e concessão. Para tanto, foram propostos três experimentos de rastreamento ocular. O primeiro investigou o custo de processamento de leitura da estrutura subordinada deslocada; o segundo comparou o custo de processamento de leitura de sentenças coordenadas e subordinadas; e o terceiro observou o peso de quatro diferentes conjunções em orações coordenadas. Foram produzidos 24 itens experimentais, compostos de condições, que contemplavam em conjunto os três experimentos supracitados: quatro orações subordinadas, sendo duas sem e duas com deslocamento, que faziam uso das conjunções “embora” e “ainda que”; quatro orações coordenadas, que faziam uso das conjunções “entretanto”, “mas”, “no entanto” e “e”. Seguia-se a todas as frases uma pergunta de controle de atenção. Participaram dos experimentos 42 estudantes do 9º ano do EF e 40 adultos leitores proficientes. As medidas observadas foram o tempo total de leitura nas sentenças completas e o tempo de primeira leitura na sentença/período completo. Para o experimento 1 (deslocamento da subordinada), na medida de primeira leitura, encontrou-se uma interação entre grupo e deslocamento (F = 4,06, p = 0.04), além de efeito principal para deslocamento (p < 0.001), mas não houve efeito de grupo. Para a medida de tempo total, foi encontrado apenas efeito principal de grupo (p < 0.001). Para o estudo do processamento da coordenação e subordinação (experimento 2), foram encontrados efeitos principais de grupo para a primeira leitura e o tempo total de leitura (p = 0.04 e p < 0.001). E no estudo das conjunções coordenativas, observou-se diferença significativa para cada conjunção na primeira leitura (p = 0.006), mas não no tempo total de leitura. Houve diferença significativa no tempo total de leitura para o grupo (p < 0.001). Os resultados sugerem que o grupo de estudantes lê de modo diferente e mais lentamente do que o grupo de adultos, mas essa medida não é sensível às sentenças coordenadas e subordinadas. Já o deslocamento da subordinada para a posição inicial da sentença gera maior custo de processamento para os estudantes, sugerindo que a aprendizagem escolar deste tema tem relevância para o encapsulamento da informação do período subordinado. Para o estudo das conjunções, observou-se que a primeira leitura é sensível ao tamanho da conjunção, pois a conjunção “e” tem um tempo de processamento mais rápido no tempo total de leitura, diferenciando-se da conjunção “mas”, que apresenta relação adversativa explícita dada sua frequência de uso.

This Diploma thesis investigates the form and meaning of time clauses in present written English. The thesis focuses mainly on the area of time conjunctions, the mode and frequency of their application and it refers to stylistic preferences of certain conjunctions. The Diploma thesis deals with rendering of real time relations by particular conjunctions, semantic and grammar limitations of using some conjunctions with some predicates{\crq} forms of main or subordinate clauses, using of tenses and their behaving in sequence of tenses. Diploma thesis sets itself an aim to point out some exceptions of using rules and show some examples of using time clauses functioning as different types of subordinate clauses. The theoretical part of the thesis is based on study of relevant literature, the practical part then is based on my own investigation for which the present written materials made by native speakers from different styles to represent both the formal and the informal English (novels, academic prose and newspapers) were used.

O presente trabalho investiga o uso da articulaÃÃo hipotÃtica adverbial concessiva na construÃÃo da argumentaÃÃo. Com base nos pressupostos funcionalistas, analisamos, de um modo integrado, os aspectos sintÃticos, textual-semÃnticos e textual-discursivos associados ao uso da oraÃÃo concessiva na construÃÃo da argumentaÃÃo em artigos de opiniÃo e editoriais. Verificamos que os aspectos sintÃticos da articulaÃÃo da oraÃÃo concessiva estÃo relacionados aos aspectos pragmÃticos. Dessa forma, a posiÃÃo da oraÃÃo concessiva (anteposiÃÃo, posposiÃÃo e intercalaÃÃo) reflete a maneira como o falante decide organizar seu discurso em virtude do propÃsito comunicativo; portanto, està ligada Ãs funÃÃes discursivas a que se presta. Assim, verificamos que, nos artigos de opiniÃo e editoriais, a diferenÃa na freqÃÃncia do uso da anteposiÃÃo e da posposiÃÃo nÃo foi significativa. Em nossa investigaÃÃo, alguns conectores tendem a introduzir oraÃÃes concessivas antepostas à o caso de apesar de e por mais/menos que, enquanto outros tendem a introduzir oraÃÃes concessivas pospostas à o caso de mesmo que. A conjunÃÃo embora apareceu, no corpus em anÃlise, com a mesma freqÃÃncia em oraÃÃes antepostas e pospostas. Quanto aos aspectos textual-semÃnticos, percebemos que, da articulaÃÃo das oraÃÃes ditas concessivas, alÃm da inferÃncia de concessÃo, emergem tambÃm outras inferÃncias, tais como condiÃÃo e inclusÃo. A partir de uma anÃlise pautada nos domÃnios de interpretaÃÃo propostos por Sweetser (1999), constatamos que, nos gÃneros em estudo, a maioria das ocorrÃncias permite leitura no domÃnio epistÃmico, mas hà um nÃmero significativo de ocorrÃncias com a possibilidade de leitura no domÃnio de conteÃdo, provavelmente porque os gÃneros jornalÃsticos abordam acontecimentos, fatos sociais. Com relaÃÃo ao tipo de oraÃÃo concessiva, verificamos que, no corpus em anÃlise, predominam as do tipo factual. Ao investigarmos os aspectos textual-discursivos, percebemos que, de uma maneira geral, as oraÃÃes concessivas sÃo usadas como fundo da oraÃÃo nuclear e que, quando pospostas, geralmente constituem uma avaliaÃÃo ou um adendo à oraÃÃo nuclear; enquanto as antepostas e as intercaladas funcionam como tÃpico/guia para a informaÃÃo nÃcleo ou como fator de coesÃo discursiva. Quanto ao papel argumentativo da oraÃÃo concessiva em artigos de opiniÃo e editoriais, percebemos que esta representa uma relevante estratÃgia por meio da qual o autor, pressupondo uma objeÃÃo por parte do leitor, declara que tal objeÃÃo nÃo impedirà nem modificarà o conteÃdo expresso na oraÃÃo nuclear / The aim of this work is to investigate the usage of concessive hypotatic clauses involved in the construction of argumentation. Based on functional theories, we analyzed the syntactic aspects, the textual-discursive aspects and the textual-semantic aspects that are associated to the usage of the concessive subordinate clause involved in the construction of argumentation in newspaper articles and editorials. We observed that the syntactic aspects of concessive subordinate clause are related to the pragmatic aspects. Thus the concessive subordinate clause position (before or after main clause or embedded clause) shows the way a speaker decides to organize her utterance due to communication purposes; hence it is connected to discursive functions. We observed that in newspaper articles and editorials, the concessive clause position before or after main clause is not relevant. Our investigation shows that few conjunctions tend to introduce concessive subordinate clause before main clause, for instance apesar de and por mais/menos que, whereas other concessive conjunctions tend to introduce subordinate clause after main clause, for example mesmo que. In the corpus, the conjunction embora is as frequent in concessive clauses before main clause as in concessive clauses after main clauses. As regards the textual-semantic aspects, we observed, besides the concessive inferences, other inferences such as condition and inclusion inferences. In an analysis based on the interpretation domains proposed by Sweetser (1999), we found, in newspaper articles and editorials, that the greater number of examples allows an interpretation in the epistemic domain, but there is a meaningful number of examples that lead to a possible interpretation in the content domain, probably this is due to the fact that newspapers genres are related to social happenings and facts. Regarding concessive clause types we observed, in the corpus analyzed, that the factual concessive clauses predominate. When we verified the textual-discursive aspects, we observed, that concessive subordinate clauses are used as main clause background and when they are placed after main clause they often represent an evaluation or an addendum to main clause, whereas concessive clause before main clause and embedded concessive clause work as a topic to a nuclear information or as a way to attain discursive cohesion. As regards the argumentative role of concessive clause in newspaper articles and editorials, we observed concessive subordinate clause represents an important strategy; through concessive clause, the author presupposes an objection on the part of the reader and he declares that the objection does not hinder the content expressed in the main clause

Este trabalho tem por propósito compreender a constituição do governo subalterno da Ilha de Santa Catarina, entre 1738 e 1807, seu estatuto político-jurídico e suas dimensões, no contexto de consolidação do Império Português no sul da América Meridional. Procura-se verificar as trajetórias e os perfis sociais e militares dos indivíduos nomeados para governar a Ilha e avançar no entendimento das atribuições e limites de jurisdição do cargo de governador subalterno no sul do Brasil. Analisando aspectos da prática governativa pretende-se ainda perceber como que esses oficiais conduziram e equacionaram as determinações passadas pela Corte Portuguesa com as demandas e pressões da sociedade local. / This work has as the purpose to understand the constitution of the subordinate government of Santa Catarina Island, from 1738 to 1807, its juridical-political statute and its dimentions, in the context of consolidation of the Portuguese Empire in the south of Southern America. It is also sought to verify the trajectory and the social and military profiles of the individuals named to govern the Island and to move forward in the understanding of the attributions and limits of jurisdiction of the subordinate governor\"s position in the south of Brazil. Analyzing the governamental practice aspects, it is still intended to notice how those oficials led and equationated the determinations passed through the Portuguese Court with the demands and pressures of the local society.

The purpose of this study is to examine ordinary people’s resistance against the king and queen between the years of 1718 and 1790 in Sweden. This is done by examining court cases of treasonous and defamatory words used against the king and queen. The criticism and resistance towards the king and queen are analysed and compared to see how men and women in powerful positions were perceived differently. This essay also tries to answer how the dominant elite respond to the resistance. To analyse the everyday resistance, James C. Scott’s theories about hidden and public transcript are used. Criticism against the royal family was illegal in 18th century Sweden and was therefore often spoken in private settings. When the criticism or defamation was spoken in public places, it was often the result of drunkenness, outbursts of strong feelings or mental illness. The resistance found in these words can also be publicly displayed when the sender was disguised, either by anonymous texts or using a physical disguise. The king was the main subject of the critique; in 17 of 21 cases the king was criticised and the queen in 6 cases. These numbers includes cases where both were criticised. Criticism against the king often concerned political issues or a person’s discontent about something. In contrast, the queen was subject to slander against her character. The king was also more often represented as an abstract power figure in the analysed cases. This is connected to the king’s formal power, whereas the queen’s power was more informal. Both the king and queen was criticised for their reckless spending, since society’s divisions affected both men and women. Class also affected how the resistance was performed, where people from higher classes gave written criticism and lower classes tended to express their criticism more spontaneously.

Este trabalho tem por propósito compreender a constituição do governo subalterno da Ilha de Santa Catarina, entre 1738 e 1807, seu estatuto político-jurídico e suas dimensões, no contexto de consolidação do Império Português no sul da América Meridional. Procura-se verificar as trajetórias e os perfis sociais e militares dos indivíduos nomeados para governar a Ilha e avançar no entendimento das atribuições e limites de jurisdição do cargo de governador subalterno no sul do Brasil. Analisando aspectos da prática governativa pretende-se ainda perceber como que esses oficiais conduziram e equacionaram as determinações passadas pela Corte Portuguesa com as demandas e pressões da sociedade local._________________________________________________________________________________________ ABSTRACT: This work has as the purpose to understand the constitution of the subordinate government of Santa Catarina Island, from 1738 to 1807, its juridical-political statute and its dimentions, in the context of consolidation of the Portuguese Empire in the south of Southern America. It is also sought to verify the trajectory and the social and military profiles of the individuals named to govern the Island and to move forward in the understanding of the attributions and limits of jurisdiction of the subordinate governor"s position in the south of Brazil. Analyzing the governamental practice aspects, it is still intended to notice how those oficials led and equationated the determinations passed through the Portuguese Court with the demands and pressures of the local society.

It is a commonly held belief that people from collectivistic, large power distance or high-context cultures, such as China, tend to be less confrontational, which could be counter-productive in organizations. Contrary to this traditional view, this study posits that conflict avoidance can be constructive depending on the specific actions protagonists take. It adopts Deutsch’s (1973) theory of cooperation and competition to understand conflict avoiding behavior between employees and their supervisors, indicating that people’s perceptions of goal interdependence significantly influence their behavioral intentions that in turn predict their overt actions to avoid conflict. Specifically, it proposes that goal interdependence greatly affects employee behavioral intentions that lead to different avoiding behaviors that affect the important outcomes of productivity, relationship, and social respect within organizations. A total of 110 participants from Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai, and Shenzhen were interviewed from June 2011 to September 2011 by critical incident technique. Interviewees were first required to recall a concrete incident in which they avoided direct discussions with their supervisors when they had a disagreement. They then rated specific questions on the recalled incident using 7-point Likert-type scales. Results of the structural equation modeling and other analyses support the hypotheses and proposed theoretical model that goal interdependence affects the behavioral intentions of employees, which significantly influence employees‟ specific actions to avoid conflict, and finally determine outcomes. Research findings contribute to the literature of conflict management and also provide crucial implications for dealing with conflict avoidance in Chinese enterprises and perhaps in organizations in other countries.