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TRF2 is an essential telomeric protein involved in preventing the telomere ends from being recognized as DNA breaks. I have shown that TRF2 does not appear to play a major role in the UV -induced DNA damage response in IMR90, Cockayne syndrome or XPC deficient cells. TRF2 binds telomeric DNA via its Myb domain and also contains an N-terminal basic domain. Expression of TRF2MMM causes telomere fusions, whereas TRF2^(ΔB) causes rapid deletion of telomeric DNA, as both phenotypes result in senescence. These phenotypes are dependant upon recombination events. Thus, the basic domain of TRF2 may be essential to suppress recombination events at telomeres. However, it is not fully understood what amino acid residues in the basic domain of TRF2 are indispensable to maintain its function. By creating mutations in the arginine residues in the basic domain of TRF2, I have shown that the positive charge of the basic domain alone is not sufficient to maintain its protective function. By expressing these TRF2 mutants in the presence or absence of the Myb domain in HT1080 and BJ/hTERT cells, I have been able to recapitulate the TRF2^(ΔB) and TRF2^(ΔBΔM) decreased proliferation and senescence phenotypes. Furthermore, by analyzing anaphase and metaphase chromosomes and performing Southern blotting, I have shed light on the molecular mechanisms responsible for the deleterious phenotypes observed in the TRF2 mutants. Amino acid changes from arginines to lysines introduced into the basic domain of TRF2 results in a significant increase in telomere doublets. However, when these TRF2 mutants are expressed in the absence of the Myb domain, a significant increase in telomere fusions events occur. Collectively, my results indicate that more than one arginine residue in the basic domain is essential to maintain the protective function of TRF2, as these arginine residues may act as substrates for protein arginine methyltransferases. / Thesis / Master of Science (MSc)

Les subtélomères forment la transition entre les séquences spécifiques des chromosomes et les répétitions télomériques terminales. Ils semblent capables d’influencer les fonctions télomériques mais les connaissances sur les mécanismes mis en jeu sont encore limitées. Les subtélomères sont pourtant associés à de nombreuses pathologies comme la myopathie facio-scapulo-humérale (FSHD), une dystrophie musculaire secondaire à la contraction de répétitions macrosatellites D4Z4 dans la région subtélomérique 4q35. Afin d’étudier les propriétés de la séquence subtélomérique D4Z4, nous avons créé des constructions reproduisant l’organisation génomique au locus 4q35. Nous avons montré que D4Z4 est capable d’adresser un télomère à la périphérie du noyau. Cette activité est couplée à une activité insulatrice au niveau d’une séquence proximale de 80 pb et est dépendante de CTCF et des Lamines A. De plus, la relocalisation périphérique d’un télomère par D4Z4 s’accompagne d’une réplication plus tardive de celui-ci. Par ailleurs, la recherche de séquences capables de s’opposer à l’effet de position télomérique (TPE) a identifié un élément de 30 pb contenant un site CTCF dans la séquence insulatrice proximale de D4Z4. De même,   l’introduction d’un signal de poly-adénylation entre un gène rapporteur et les répétitions télomériques interfère avec le TPE et est accompagnée d’une diminution d’un transcrit hybride contenant le gène rapporteur et des répétitions télomériques, suggérant un rôle des transcrits télomériques TERRAs dans la régulation du TPE. En conclusion, ce travail a permis de caractériser l’implication de séquences subtélomériques, et notamment D4Z4, dans la régulation des télomères, leur compartimentalisation nucléaire, la réplication ou l’effet de position télomérique. De plus, il apporte un éclairage nouveau sur la physiopathologie de la FSHD et ouvre des perspectives dans la compréhension d’autres pathologies liées aux subtélomères. / Subtelomeres form the transition between chromosome specific sequences and terminal telomeric repeats. They might influence telomeric functions but underlying mechanisms are still unclear. Nevertheless, subtelomeres are associated with a number of human pathologies such as facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy (FSHD), an autosomal dominant disease secondary to the contraction of an array of D4Z4 macrosatellite repeats in the subtelomeric region 4q35. In order to study the biological function of the D4Z4 sequence, we created contructs that mimic the genomic organization of the 4q35 locus. We showed that D4Z4 is able to localize a telomere at the nuclear periphery. This perinuclear activity was dependant on interactions with CTCF and A type lamins and lied within a 80 bp proximal sequence that harbors an insulator activity. Moreover, the peripheral positionning of a telomere by D4Z4 is accompanied by a late replication timing of the telomere. We also searched for sequences able to counteract telomeric position effect (TPE) and identified a 30 bp element containing a CTCF binding site in the proximal region of D4Z4. In another construct, the introduction of a poly-adenylation signal between a reporter gene and telomeric repeats counteracted TPE. This effect is accompanied by the production of a hybrid transcript encompassing the reporter gene and telomeric repeats, suggesting a role for the TERRAs telomeric transcripts in TPE regulation. This work contibuted to characterize the role of subtelomeric sequences, especially the D4Z4 macrosatellite, in telomere regulation, their nuclear compartimentalization, their replication or the telomeric position effect. We will discuss the implications in the understanding of the pathophysiology of FSHD and other subtelomeric diseases.

The addition of isocyanates to C=N double bonds of imines gives triazindione heterocycle structures; their thermal properties are reported. Mono-isocyanates were used to form 2:1 adducts with the imine bases 1,8-diazabicyclo[5.4.0]undec-7-ene (DBU), 1,5-diazabicyclo[4.3.0]non-5-ene (DBN) and 2-tert-butyl-1,1,3,3-tetramethylguanidine (tBuTMG). A 2:1 stoichiometry of the adducts was proven by NMR and IR spectroscopy, and single crystal X-Ray diffraction; certain cleavage temperatures (70 and 160 °C) were measured. Thermal analysis (TG-MS) of adducts indicates the release of free isocyanate during adduct cleavage. Furthermore, a new class of step-growth oligomers (MN = 750–7,000 g∙mol–1) composed of multi-functional isocyanates and these imine bases was introduced. Their systematic spectroscopic and thermal analysis is shown revealing the similarity in their chemical properties to the 2:1 adducts. Radical homo- and copolymerization of acrylates is initiated by the meta-stable adducts and oligomers of this work; the generation of novel telomeric block-copolymer architectures composed of polyacrylate and oligourea building blocks is demonstrated. / Dieser Beitrag ist aufgrund einer (DFG-geförderten) Allianz- bzw. Nationallizenz frei zugänglich.

Résumé : Les télomères sont des structures nucléoprotéiques spécialisées qui assurent la stabilité du génome en protégeant les extrémités chromosomiques. Afin d’empêcher des activités indésirables, la réparation des dommages à l’ADN doit être convenablement régulée au niveau des télomères. Pourtant, il existe peu d’études de la réparation des dommages induits par les ultraviolets (UVs) dans un contexte télomérique. Le mécanisme de réparation par excision de nucléotides (NER pour « Nucleotide Excision Repair ») permet d’éliminer les photoproduits. La NER est un mécanisme très bien conservé de la levure à l’humain. Elle est divisée en deux sous voies : une réparation globale du génome (GG-NER) et une réparation couplée à la transcription (TC-NER) plus rapide et plus efficace. Dans notre modèle d’étude, la levure Saccharomyces cerevisiae, une forme compactée de la chromatine nommée plus fréquemment « hétérochromatine » a été décrite. Cette structure particulière est présente entre autres, au niveau des régions sous-télomériques des extrémités chromosomiques. La formation de cette chromatine particulière implique quatre protéines nommées Sir (« Silent Information Regulator »). Elle présente différentes marques épigénétiques dont l’effet est de réprimer la transcription. L’accès aux dommages par la machinerie de réparation est-il limité par cette chromatine compacte ? Nous avons donc étudié la réparation des lésions induites par les UVs dans différentes régions associées aux télomères, en absence ou en présence de protéines Sir. Nos données ont démontré une modulation de la NER par la chromatine, dépendante des nucléosomes stabilisés par les Sir, dans les régions sous-télomériques. La NER était moins efficace dans les extrémités chromosomiques que dans les régions plus proches du centromère. Cet effet était dépendant du complexe YKu de la coiffe télomérique, mais pas dépendant des protéines Sir. La transcription télomériques pourrait aider la réparation des photoproduits, par l’intermédiaire de la sous-voie de TC-NER, prévenant ainsi la formation de mutations dans les extrémités chromosomiques. Des ARN non codants nommés TERRA sont produits mais leur rôle n’est pas encore clair. Par nos analyses, nous avons confirmé que la transcription des TERRA faciliterait la NER dans les différentes régions sous-télomériques. / Abstract : Telomeric DNA is made of short tandem repeats located at the ends of chromosomes and their maintenance is critical to prevent genome instability. DNA lesions constitute a serious risk to genome integrity. Thus, DNA repair mechanisms are required for continuous and unabridged cell divisions. The nucleotide excision repair (NER) pathway removes bulky DNA lesions such as UV-induced photoproducts, like the cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers (CPD). NER is divided in two sub-pathways: global genome repair (GGR) and the faster transcription-coupled repair (TCR), which only differ in how they recognize UV-induced lesions. In eukaryotes, NER must find and repair DNA lesions that are buried in nucleosomes. In the yeast S. cerevisiae, genes positioned close to telomeres are silenced by a heterochromatin-like structure that is formed by silent information regulator proteins (Sir). To determine if nucleosomes and chromatin in subtelomeric regions affect the efficiency of NER, we studied the repair of photoproducts in different telomere-associated regions in both, WT and SIR genes deleted cells (sirΔ). We found that NER efficiency was modulated by the presence of nucleosomes on the subtelomeric type X element. In addition, in absence of Sir proteins, NER efficiency increased and was not modulated by nucleosomes, indicating that nucleosome positioning was less defined in sirΔ cells. Remarkably, in telomeric restriction fragment, NER was less efficient at telomeres than in the subtelomere type Y’ element. We suggest that low NER efficiency at the very end of chromosomes results from attachment sites to the nuclear periphery. Our data indicate that NER in sub-telomeric chromatin is modulated by Sir proteins stabilized-nucleosomes, and that NER is inhibited in telomeric chromatin by the presence of YKu, independently from the presence of Sir proteins. It was recently shown that the chromosome ends are transcribed and a non-coding RNA, called TERRA, is produced. Currently the precise functions of TERRA are not understood. Our second goal is to help understand the function of TERRA. We think that transcription at the chromosome ends could facilitate the removal of DNA lesions from heterochromatin by TCR, which would prevent the formation of mutations and, ultimately, chromosome shortening. Our data showed that TC-NER is effective in Y’ element and the telomere. Without Sir proteins, TERRA transcription is found in a particular region at the end of the X element. The transcription of TERRA could improve the repair of UV-induced lesions.

Background and Aims: Hepatitis C virus (HCV) leads to a high rate of chronic infection and T cell dysfunction. Although it is well known that chronic antigenic stimulation is a driving force for impaired T cell functions, the precise mechanisms underlying immune activation–induced T cell dysfunctions during HCV infection remain elusive. Approach and Results: Here, we demonstrated that circulating CD4+ T cells from patients who are chronically HCV-infected exhibit an immune activation status, as evidenced by the overexpression of cell activation markers human leukocyte antigen-antigen D-related, glucose transporter 1, granzyme B, and the short-lived effector marker CD127- killer cell lectin-like receptor G1+. In contrast, the expression of stem cell–like transcription factor T cell factor 1 and telomeric repeat-binding factor 2 (TRF2) are significantly reduced in CD4+ T cells from patients who are chronically HCV-infected compared with healthy participants (HP). Mechanistic studies revealed that CD4+ T cells from participants with HCV exhibit phosphoinositide 3-kinase/Akt/mammalian target of rapamycin signaling hyperactivation on T cell receptor stimulation, promoting proinflammatory effector cell differentiation, telomeric DNA damage, and cellular apoptosis. Inhibition of Akt signaling during T cell activation preserved the precursor memory cell population and prevented inflammatory effector cell expansion, DNA damage, and apoptotic death. Moreover, knockdown of TRF2 reduced HP T cell stemness and triggered telomeric DNA damage and cellular apoptosis, whereas overexpression of TRF2 in CD4 T cells prevented telomeric DNA damage. Conclusions: These results suggest that modulation of immune activation through inhibiting Akt signaling and protecting telomeres through enhancing TRF2 expression may open therapeutic strategies to fine tune the adaptive immune responses in the setting of persistent immune activation and inflammation during chronic HCV infection.

The addition of isocyanates to C=N double bonds of imines gives triazindione heterocycle structures; their thermal properties are reported. Mono-isocyanates were used to form 2:1 adducts with the imine bases 1,8-diazabicyclo[5.4.0]undec-7-ene (DBU), 1,5-diazabicyclo[4.3.0]non-5-ene (DBN) and 2-tert-butyl-1,1,3,3-tetramethylguanidine (tBuTMG). A 2:1 stoichiometry of the adducts was proven by NMR and IR spectroscopy, and single crystal X-Ray diffraction; certain cleavage temperatures (70 and 160 °C) were measured. Thermal analysis (TG-MS) of adducts indicates the release of free isocyanate during adduct cleavage. Furthermore, a new class of step-growth oligomers (MN = 750–7,000 g∙mol–1) composed of multi-functional isocyanates and these imine bases was introduced. Their systematic spectroscopic and thermal analysis is shown revealing the similarity in their chemical properties to the 2:1 adducts. Radical homo- and copolymerization of acrylates is initiated by the meta-stable adducts and oligomers of this work; the generation of novel telomeric block-copolymer architectures composed of polyacrylate and oligourea building blocks is demonstrated. / Dieser Beitrag ist aufgrund einer (DFG-geförderten) Allianz- bzw. Nationallizenz frei zugänglich.

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A doença vassoura-de-bruxa do cacaueiro (Theobroma cacao), causada pelo basidiomiceto Crinipellis perniciosa, levou a total destruição da lavoura sul-baiana, previamente cultivada principalmente com variedades altamente suscetíveis, tornando o Brasil, um país tipicamente exportador de cacau em importador em poucos anos. A perda da resistência do genótipo ?Scavina 6?, única fonte de resistência reconhecida contra C. perniciosa, está associada à variabilidade genética do patógeno. Diante disto, o objetivo deste estudo foi caracterizar a diversidade genética de isolados de C. perniciosa derivados de tecido infectado de Theobroma cacao (vassoura vede), originalmente coletados na Amazônia (Amazonas, Pará e Rondônia), uma região de ocorrência endêmica do fungo, usando marcadores moleculares. A identificação de relações genéticas entre isolados amazônicos e da Bahia e a possível existência de isolados geográficos também foram objetos deste trabalho. Primeiramente, a confirmação de identidade dos isolados Amazônicos foi conduzida usando amplificação e digestão da região ITS do rDNA e marcadores teloméricos. Todos os isolados avaliados foram confirmados como C. perniciosa. O primer telomérico TeloC1, previamente apresentado para discriminar o biótipo C, permitiu a separação do biótipo C dos biótipos S e L, porém, revelou variabilidade genética nos isolados de Cametá, PA e Cacaulândia, RO. Usando marcadores telomérico amplificado com o primer TeloA1R e ERIC, uma grande diversidade foi encontrada para os isolados da Região Amazônica em comparação àqueles da Bahia. Dentro dos isolados Amazônicos, a maior diversidade foi detectada para os isolados de Rondônia (Ji-Paraná, Cacaulândia e Ariquemes) e Pará (Cametá), áreas com 11 ocorrência endêmica ou de instalação histórica (mais de 300 anos) do cacaueiro, respectivamente. Isolados coletados em municípios localizados na regiãoTransamazônica, tais como Anapú, Altamira, Brasil Novo, Medicilândia e Uruará apresentaram maior similaridade com aqueles de Santarém e municípios relacionados à Belém, como Cametá, Baião e Mocajuba. Estes resultados sugerem que isolados da região Transamazônica pode ter sido originados de Belém ou Santarém, Pará. Na Bahia, houve a formação de dois grupos de isolados como previamente demonstrado. Os marcadores moleculares Microssatélites, ERIC e teloméricos foram eficientes na detecção da variabilidade genética em C. perniciosa. A diversidade genética observada auxiliará na identificação e escolha de regiões com maior diversidade de isolados para serem usados na seleção para resistência à vassoura-de-bruxa em programas de melhoramento do cacau / Witches broom disease of cacao (Theobroma cacao L.), caused by the basidiomycete Crinipellis perniciosa, devastated the producing region of Southern Bahia, previously cultivated mainly with highly susceptible cultivars, forcing Brazil, a typical exporter country to become a cocoa importer. The loss of resistance of the genotype ?Scavina 6?, the unique source of resistance against C. perniciosa has been associated with pathogen genetic variability. Thus, the objective of this study was to characterize the genetic diversity of C. perniciosa isolated derived from infected tissues of T. cacao (green-brooms), originally collected in the Amazon (Amazonas, Pará and Rondônia states), a region with endemic occurrence of the fungus, using molecular markers. The identification of the genetic relationships among the Amazonian and Bahian isolates, and the possible existence of geographical isolates were also objectives of this work. First, the identification confirmation of the Amazonian isolates was conducted using amplification and digestion of the ITS region of the rDNA and telomeric markers. All isolates evaluated were confirmed as C. perniciosa. The telomeric primer TeloC1, previously shown to discriminate the C biotype, allowed the separation of biotype C from biotypes S and L, but it revealed genetic diversity for isolates from Cametá, PA and Cacaulândia, RO. Using another telomeric marker amplified with TeloA1 primer and ERIC, a large genetic diversity was detected for isolates from the Amazon in comparison to Bahian. Within the Amazonian isolates, more diversity was detected for isolates from Rondônia (Ji-Paraná, Cacaulândia and Ariquemes) and Pará (Cametá), areas with endemic occurrence of wild cacao or historical introduction and cultivation (over 300 years), respectively. Isolates colletected at the Transamazônica roadway, such as from Anapú, Altamira, Brasil Novo, Medicilândia and Uruará presented more similarity with those from Santarém and locales nearer to Belém, such as Cametá, Baião and Mocajuba. These results suggested that isolates from the Transamazônica region might have originated from Belém or Santarém, Pará. In Bahia, there were two groups of isolates as previously demonstrated. Microsatellite, ERIC and telomeric markers were efficient in detecting the genetic variability of C. perniciosa. The genetic diversity observed will help in identifying and choosing regions with more diverse isolates to be used to screen for witches? broom resistance in cacao breeding programs