L'expansion des zones agricoles a conduit à la perte de biodiversité due à la réduction des habitats naturels et semi-naturels dans les paysages agricoles. Avec l'augmentation de la production agricole dans le monde, des techniques écologiquement rationnelles sont de plus en plus discutées qui permettent une gestion durable des habitats environnants. Les effets de ces habitats sur la population des insectes nuisibles et de leurs ennemis naturels sont encore mal connus. L'objectif de cette thèse était de comprendre les effets des environnements naturels et semi-naturels sur la population des insectes nuisibles et des ennemis naturels dans les régions tropicales (Brésil) et tempérées (France). Au Brésil (chapitre II), on a évalué l'effet de la distance des fragments sur la population de fourmis prédatrices et omnivores dans la canne à sucre. Les résultats montrent que la richesse en espèces diminue avec la distance des fragments forestiers et que la prédominance des espèces Dorymyrmex bruneus et Pheidole oxyops augmente. Des espèces de fourmis colonisant les champs de canne à sucre ont également été trouvées dans des fragments forestiers, ce qui suggère que ces derniers habitats sont des refuges pour les espèces de fourmis prédatrices pendant les périodes de perturbation comme la récolte de la canne à sucre ou le travail du sol. Cela a été confirmé par des différences plus fortes dans les communautés de fourmis après la récolte de la canne à sucre (saison sèche) que quatre mois plus tard / (saison des pluies) quand l'absence de perturbation a permis la re-lonosiation par les fourmis. Il y avait aussi une différence dans la richesse des espèces de fourmis entre les différents types de fragments (vallées fluviales et plaines). En France, on a évalué l'effet des bandes de fleurs sauvages, de la végétation spontanée et des bandes d'herbe sur la communauté des ennemis naturels et la régulation du puceron de la pomme rosâtre Dysaphis plantaginaea (chapitre III). En ce qui concerne les principaux ennemis naturels, nos résultats ont montré une densité plus élevée de hoverflies par rapport à d'autres types de bande, mais aucune différence pour les coccinelles (coccinelidae). Cependant, aucune différence de densité naturelle de l'ennemi n'a été observée à l'intérieur des vergers. Le nombre de pucerons était plus élevé près des marges, ce qui suggère que la colonisation à partir des bandes marginales peut contrecarrer les effets régulateurs positifs des ennemis naturels. Les effets positifs de la végétation de la marge de bande sur la régulation des ravageurs de la pomme nécessitent un mouvement d'ennemis naturels dans le verger. Nous avons testé les mouvements des prédateurs généralistes en étiquetant les bandes de marge avec des protéines d'oeufs et nous avons vérifié si elles se nourrissaient d'insectes nuisibles en utilisant l'analyse de marqueurs génétiques des gènes de papillon (Cydia pomonella) à l'intérieur des prédateurs (chapitre IV). Les résultats ont montré que peu de personnes se déplaçaient des marges de champ dans le verger. Cependant, 25% des prédateurs capturés se nourrissaient de C. pomonella indiquant encore un haut niveau de régulation naturelle. En conclusion, le mouvement limité des prédateurs à partir des bandes de marges dans les vergers peut expliquer l'absence de différences entre les traitements de bandes dans la régulation des ravageurs du verger (pucerons). Les habitats naturels et semi-naturels peuvent contribuer à la lutte contre les ravageurs en marge des cultures, mais dans les vergers de pommiers cet effet a fortement diminué avec la distance. / The expansion of agricultural areas has led to the loss of biodiversity due to the reduction of natural and semi-natural habitats in agricultural landscapes. With the increase of agricultural production in the world, environmentally sound techniques are increasingly discussed that allow a sustainable management of surrounding habitats. The effects of these habitats on the population of insect pests and their natural enemies are still poorly understood. The objective of this thesis was to understand the effects of natural and semi-natural environments on the population of insect pests and natural enemies in tropical (Brazil) and temperate (France) regions. In Brazil (Chapter II) the effect of the distance of fragments on the population of predatory and omnivorous ants in sugarcane was evaluated. The results showed that the species richness decrease with distance from forest fragments and that the dominance of the species Dorymyrmex bruneus and Pheidole oxyops increase. Ant species colonizing sugarcane fields were also found in forest fragments suggesting that the latter habitats are shelters for predatory ant species during periods of disturbance such as sugarcane harvest or soil tillage. This was confirmed by stronger differences in ant communities after sugarcane harvest (dry season) than four months later /(rainy season) when absence of disturbance allowed re-colonization by ants. There was also a difference in the richness of ant species between different fragment types (river valleys and plateaus). In France, the effect of wildflower strips, spontaneous vegetation and grass strips on the community of natural enemies and the regulation of the rosy apple aphid Dysaphis plantaginaea (Chapter III) were evaluated. Concerning major natural enemies, our results showed a higher density of hoverflies compared with other strip types but no difference for ladybirds (coccinelidae). No differences in natural enemy densities were observed inside orchards. Aphid number was higher close to the margins suggesting that colonization from margin strips may counteract positive regulatory effects of natural enemies. Positive effects of strip margin vegetation on regulation of apple pests require a movement of natural enemies into the orchard. We tested the movements of generalist predators by labelling margin strips with egg protein and we checked whether they fed on pest insects using genetic marker analysis of codling (Cydia pomonella) moth genes inside predators (chapter IV). The results showed that few individuals were moving from the field margins into the orchard. However, 25% of the captured predators fed on C. pomonella still indicating a high level of natural regulation. In conclusion, the limited movement of predators from margin strips into orchards may explain the absence of differences between strip treatments in orchard pest regulation (aphids). Natural and semi-natural habitats can contribute to pest control at the margins of crops, but in apple orchards this effect strongly decreased with distance.

<p>Colletotrichum spp. su značajni prouzrokovači bolesti biljaka u svetu i u na&scaron;oj zemlji, u polju i u skladi&scaron;tu. Na plodovima jabuke prisutne su dve vrste ovog roda, C. acutatum i C. gloeosporioides. Pomenute vrste uzrokuju ekonomski značajne gubitke posle berbe plodova jabuke, tokom skladi&scaron;tenja, transporta i plasmana na trži&scaron;te. Nedoumice sa kojima se naučna javnost suočava kada je u pitanju ovaj rod jeste precizno utvrđivanje sistematske pozicije i definisanje vrsta i nižih kategorija. Klasične fitopatolo&scaron;ke metode ne omogućavaju preciznu<br />iv<br />identifikaciju do nivoa vrste. Otuda su molekularni pristupi sve zastupljeniji u identifikaciji Colletotrichum spp. U suzbijanju skladi&scaron;nih patogena pretežno se primenjuju hemijski fungicidi. Zbog nepovoljnih toksikolo&scaron;kih svojstava i pojave rezistentnosti, primena hemijskih fungicida se sve vi&scaron;e redukuje, a njihova upotreba posle berbe plodova zabranjena je u većini zemalja. Stoga, za održivi razvoj poljoprivredne proizvodnje neophodna su istraživanja usmerena ka otkrivanju mikroorganizama i prirodno sintetisanih materija koje imaju potencijala za primenu u biolo&scaron;koj za&scaron;titi.<br />Cilj ovog rada je da se utvrdi zastupljenost Colletotrichum spp. na uskladi&scaron;tenim plodovima jabuke u R. Srbiji, kao i pouzdanost klasičnih i molekularnih metoda za njihovu identifikaciju do nivoa vrste i nižih kategorija. Utvrđivanje filogenetske pozicije i genetičke udaljenosti izolata je takođe svrstano u ciljeve istraživanja. Nadalje, cilj je i da se izdvoje mikroorganizami i etarska ulja koja ispoljavaju antifungalno delovanje na Colletotrichum spp. Zatim, da se za mikroorganizam sa najizraženijim antifungalnim delovanjem defini&scaron;u uslovi kultivacije (sastav hranljive podloge i trajanje) koji maksimizuju njegovu antifungalnu aktivnost i utvrdi način njegovog delovanja.<br />Utvrđeno je da su Colletotrichum spp. redovno prisutni na uskladi&scaron;tenim plodovima jabuke u Vojvodini i delovima zapadne, centralne i jugoistočne Srbije i da je njihova zastupljenost u odnosu na druge fitopatogene gljive 7,8-10%. Zbog osetljivosti C. gloeosporioides na niske temperature, C. acutatum postaje sve dominantnija vrsta ovog roda na uskladi&scaron;tenim plodovima jabuke. Razlikovanje C. acutatum i C. gloeosporioides je moguće na osnovu fenotipskih karakteristika kolonija (u slučaju hromogenih izolata C. acutatum), dužine konidija, rasta kolonija na 5 i 35&deg;C i brzine rasta kolonija na različitim podlogama. Oblik i &scaron;irina konidija i optimalna temperatura rasta su nedovoljno pouzdani kriterijumi za identifikaciju do nivoa vrste. PCR metodom uz primenu prajmera specifičnih za vrstu uspe&scaron;no se identifikuju C. acutatum i C. gloeosporioides. Primenom univerzalnih prajmera ITS1 i ITS4 amplifikuju se rDNK-ITS sekvence ovih izolata. Analizom sekvenci izrađuju se filogenetska stabla visoke stabilnosti i jasno razdvajaju C. acutatum i C. gloeosporioides, a u okviru C. acutatum se odvajaju nehromogeni i hromogeni izolati. S. hygroscopicus, S. aureus, B. cereus, P. aeruginosa i B. subtilis sojevi N146, ST 1/III, Č13 i QST 713 ispoljavaju antifungalnu aktivnost na Colletotrichum spp. in vitro i in vivo. S. hygroscopicus obezbeđuje za&scaron;titu plodova na nivou sa hemijskim fungicidima (trifloksistrobin, boskalid+piraklostrobin, pirimetanil+flukvinkonazol, kaptan). Kultivacijom S. hygroscopicus u podlozi sa 15,07 g/l glicerola, 5,28 g/l ekstrakta kvasca i 0,81 g/l fosfata, u<br />v<br />trajanju 3-4 dana, postiže se maksimalno antifungalno delovanje na Colletotrichum spp. Antifungalno delovanje S. hygroscopicus zasnovano je na produkciji ekstracelularnih, termostabilnih metabolita. Dvomesečno skladi&scaron;tenje trtiranih plodova na 2&plusmn;0,5&deg;C ne slabi antifungalno delovanje S. hygroscopicus. Etarska ulja origana i timijana ispoljavaju snažno inhibitorno delovanje na Colletotrichum spp.</p> / <p>Colletotrichum spp. are significant plant pathogens worldwide in field, as well as on stored fruits. Two species of this genera, C. acutatum and C. gloeosporioides, can occur on apple fruits. The species cause significant economic losses on apple fruits after harvest, during storage, transport and marketing. Scientific community faces confusion in defining precise systematic position of this genera, as well as in identification to the species level and lower categories. Conventional<br />viii<br />phytopathological methods do not provide precise identification to the species level. Thus, molecular approaches are taking the lead in Colletotrichum spp. identification. Post-harvest pathogens are mainly managed by chemical fungicides. Due to adverse toxicological properties and resistance occurrence, use of chemical fungicides is being reduced, and their application after harvest is prohibited in most countries. Therefore, studies regarding detection of microorganisms and naturally synthetized substances with a potential for application in biological control are necessary for sustainable development of agriculture.<br />The aim of this study was to determine frequency of Colletotrichum spp. on stored apple fruits in the Republic of Serbia as well as reliability of conventional and molecular methods in their identification to the species level and lower categories. Determination of phylogenetic position and molecular distance of the isolates were also set as investigation goals. The aim was also to determine microorganisms and essential oils with antifungal activity against Colletotrichum spp. Defining of cultivation conditions (nutrient medium composition and duration) for the microorganism with the most pronounced antifungal activity which maximize its activity and defining its mode of action were also set as goals.<br />It was found that Colletotrichum spp. are commonly present on stored apple fruits in Vojvodina Province and in western, central and southeastern parts of Serbia with a share of 7.8-10% among other phytopathogenic fungi. Due to susceptibility of C. gloeosporioides to low temperatures, C. acutatum is becoming dominant species of this genus on stored apple fruits. Discrimination between C. acutatum and C. gloeosporioides is possible on the basis of phenotypic characteristics of colony (in the case of chromogenus isolates of C. acutatum), conidium length, colony growth at 5 and 35&deg;C and colony growth rate on different media. Conidium shape and width and optimal growth temperature are insufficient criteria for identification to the species level. PCR method using species-specific primers is reliable for identification of C. acutatum and C. gloeosporioides. rDNK-ITS sequences of the isolates can be successfully amplified with universal primers, ITS1 and ITS4. Analyses of the sequences alow construction of highly stable phylogenetic trees with distinctively separated C. acutatum and C. gloeosporioides clades, and also additional clades of non-chromogenum and chromogenum C. acutatum isolates. S. hygroscopicus, S. aureus, B. cereus, P. aeruginosa and B. subtilis strains N146, ST 1/III, Č13 and QST<br />ix<br />713 exhibit antifungal activity against Colletotrichum spp. in vitro and in vivo. S. hygroscopicus ensures fruit protection at the same level as chemical fungicides (trifloxistrobin, boscalid+pyraclostrobine, pyrimethanil+flukvinconazol, captan). Cultivation of S. hygroscopicus in the medium with 15.07 g/l glycerol, 5.28 g/l yeast extract and 0.81 g/l phosphates, for 3-4 days, ensures maximal antifungal activity against Colletotrichum spp. Antifungal activity of S. hygroscopicus is based on production of extracelular, thermostable metabolites. Two-month storage of treated apple fruits at 2&plusmn;0.5&deg;C does not reduce antifungal activity of S. hygroscopicus. Oregano and thyme essential oils exhibit strong inhibitory effects on Colletotrichum</p>

<p>Apple pomace is a by-product of the industrial production of apple juice, amounting to approximately 20-30% of freshly processed apples. Several million tonnes of apple pomace is produced in the world annually. Fresh apple pomace is characterised by high sugar and moisture content, which makes it susceptible to microbial contamination, uncontrolled fermentation and spoiling. Despite increasingly stricter legal regulations in managing biodegradable waste, large quantities of apple pomace are still being disposed of at landfills, posing a serious environmental issue. Since apple pomace has a certain nutritive value, it seems necessary to consider possibilities for using it as animal feed.<br />The main goal of this research was to examine the possibility for using dried apple pomace as animal feed, i.e., as a raw material in the industrial production of animal feed. Accordingly, the nutritive value of dried apple pomace was examined, along with the process of pelleting, since pelleting is one of the most common technological procedures in the industrial production of animal feed.<br />The testing of the chemical composition of dried apple pomace, used to determine its nutritive value, included the analyses of the content of raw proteins, raw fats, raw fibres, ash, neutral detergent fibres (NDF), acid detergent lignin (ADL), lignin, total sugars, individual sugars &ndash; fructose, glucose and sucrose, essential amino-acids, vitamins and mineral elements. When compared with the majority of commonly used animal feeds, the dried apple pomace was found to contain large amounts of raw fibres and sugars and small amounts of proteins and fats.<br />In accordance with the determined nutritional composition of the dried apple pomace, concentrate mixtures for fattening pigs were prepared, after which a trial was performed to examine the effect of feeding the animals on the mixtures containing dried apple pomace in different concentrations on the production performance of the fattening pigs. The results of the feeding trial showed that adding 7% of dried apple pomace in the growing period and 10% in the finishing period had no negative effects on the animal health, production and meat yield.<br />In the next part of the research, the dried apple pomace was pressed into pellets, with three starting moisture contents in the unpelleted material &ndash; 10%, 13% and 16%. The examination of the produced pellets showed that they had very good physical quality in terms of the pellet durability index (PDI) and hardness. The value of PDI exceeded 99% for all three starting moisture contents. The bulk density of the pelleted dried apple pomace was nearly twice as large as it was before pelleting. Increasing the moisture content in the dried apple pomace from 13% to 16% resulted in lower temperatures and energy consumption in the process of pelleting.<br />The goal of the next part of the research was to examine the effect of adding apple pomace into the concentrate mixture models consisting of corn and sunflower meal on the physical quality of the obtained pellets, the specific electricity consumption of the pellet press and the temperature of the pellet press die. Three concentrate mixture models were prepared for the test, comprising 0%, 10% and 20% of dry apple pomace. The mixtures were conditioned by adding water to reach the moisture content of 13%, 15% and 17% and pelleted at three settings of the press die (8, 24 and 30 mm). Therefore, three parameters were varied at three levels, in a full factorial experimental design. The dependent variables (response variables) were: PDI, pellet hardness (H), dust content in the pellets, bulk density of the pellets, matrix temperature of the pellet press and the specific energy consumption of the pellet press. The results showed that adding dried apple pomace into the model concentrate mixtures led to a significant increase in pellet quality, especially in terms of increasing the PDI value and decreasing the dust content. The results of the analysis of standard scores (SS) showed that the optimum values for pellet quality, specific energy consumption and temperature of the press die were obtained for the model concentrate mixture containing 10% of dried apple pomace, using 30 mm press die and with 17% of the starting moisture content. Good results were also obtained for the model concentrate mixture containing 20% of dried apple pomace, using 24 mm press die and with 17% of the starting moisture content.<br />To define the effect of the concentration of dried apple pomace in the model mixtures, the press die thickness and the starting moisture content on the change of the response variables, the response surface methodology (RSM) was used. The analysis of variance (ANOVA) of the response models for each of the analysed quality parameters and pelleting processes, showed which of the process parameters (percentage of apple pomace in the concentrate model mixtures, press die thickness and starting moisture content) had statistically the biggest effect on creating the mathematical response models, presented in the form of the second order polynomial (SOP). The results of this research showed that the increase in the percentage of dried apple pomace, press die thickness and starting moisture content led to an increase in PDI value, hardness (H) and bulk density of the pellets and a decrease in the content of dust in the pellets. The increase in the share of apple pomace in the model mixtures and in the die thickness of the pellet press led to an increase in the specific energy consumption and die temperature. On the other hand, the increase in the starting moisture content led to a decrease in the specific energy consumption and die temperature.<br />In the last part of the research, on the basis of the determined nutritive value of the dried apple pomace the author made a calculation, in terms of optimising the concentrate mixtures containing dried apple pomace in the optimum amount for feeding particular species and categories of farm animals. The results suggest the way of practical utilization of dried apple pomace in feeding farm animals as well as in the industrial production of animal feed.</p>

<p>Zadatak ove teze je da se ispita uticaj zamene dela p&scaron;eničnog bra&scaron;na ekstrudiranim snek proizvodima obogaćenim dodatkom p&scaron;enične klice, pivskog tropa i tropa jabuke na svojstva testa (boja, fizička, reolo&scaron;ka) kao i na karakteristike čajnog peciva (fizičke, senzorske, nutritivne, trajnost, mikrobiolo&scaron;ke). U toku preliminarnih ispitivanja (prva faza eksperimentalnog rada) ispitan je uticaj obezma&scaron;ćene p&scaron;enične klice na kvalitet testa i čajnog peciva u cilju definisanja optimalnog nivoa zamene p&scaron;eničnog bra&scaron;na ekstrudatima kukuruzne krupice sa dodatkom sporednih proizvoda prehrambene industrije i optimalnog sadržaja vlage testa. P&scaron;enično bra&scaron;no je u količini od 5, 10 i 15 % zamenjeno obezma&scaron;ćenom p&scaron;eničnom klicom. Pored uticaja nivoa zamene p&scaron;eničnog bra&scaron;na p&scaron;eničnom klicom, ispitan je i uticaj veličine čestica p&scaron;enične klice (&lt;150 &mu;m, 150-1000 &mu;m i 800-2000 &mu;m), kao i vlage testa pri zamesu (20, 22 i 24 %). U toku druge faze eksperimentalnog rada ove doktorske disertacije, pripremljeni su ekstrudati kukuruzne krupice sa dodatkom sporednih proizvoda prehrambene industrije i to: p&scaron;enične klice, pivskog tropa i tropa jabuke u udelima 15, 30 i 45 % (odnos kukuruzna krupica:sporedni proizvod bio je 85:15, 70:30 i 55:45). Dobijeni ekstrudati su samleveni i prosejani na sitima u cilju dobijanja tri frakcije sa različitim veličinama čestica (&lt; 250 &mu;m, 250 - 1000 &mu;m i 1000 - 2000 &mu;m). Izvr&scaron;ena je karakterizacija ekstrudata u smislu određivanja hemijskog sastava, raspodele veličine čestica, boje i mikrobiolo&scaron;ke analize. Ovako dobijeni ekstrudati su zatim kori&scaron;ćeni u proizvodnji čajnog peciva kao zamena p&scaron;eničnog bra&scaron;na u količinama od 5, 10 i 15 % računato na masu bra&scaron;na. Za procenu uticaja veličine čestica ekstrudata, udela sporednog proizvoda u ekstrudatu i udela ekstrudata u čajnom pecivu na osobine testa i čajnog peciva takođe je kori&scaron;ćen Box-Behnken eksperimentalni dizajn. Rezultati su pokazali da je moguća proizvodnja funkcionalnog čajnog peciva sa dodatkom ekstrudata kukuruzne krupice obogaćene sporednim proizvodima prehrambene industrije, pri čemu se pobolj&scaron;ava nutritivni profil čajnog peciva, bez negativnih efekata na fizičke i senzorske karakteristike gotovog proizvoda.</p> / <p>The aim of this study is to examine the effect of replacing a portion of wheat flour with extruded snack products enriched with the addition of wheat germ, brewer&#39;s spent grain and apple pomace on the rheological and textural properties of dough and on characteristics of cookies (physical, sensory, nutritive, microbiological). During the preliminary analysis (the first phase of the experimental work), the influence of defatted wheat germ particle size, wheat germ content and dough moisture content on the quality of the dough and the cookies was investigated using the Box-Behnken experimental design. During the second phase of the experimental work, the extruded corn meal with the addition of by-products of the food industry (wheat germ, brewer&#39;s spent grain and apple pomace) were prepared (the ratio of corn meal: by-product was 85:15, 70:30 and 55:45). The obtained snack products are milled and sieved to obtain 3 fractions with different particle sizes (&lt;250 &mu;m, 250-1000 &mu;m and 1000-2000 &mu;m). Characterization of the extrudates in terms of determining the chemical composition, particle size distribution, color and microbiological analysis was performed. The obtained extrudates were then used in the production of cookies for the replacement of wheat flour in quantities of 5, 10 and 15%. The Box-Behnken experimental design was used to evaluate the influence of the extrudate particle size, the share of the by-product in the extrudate, and the share of extrudates in the cookies, on the dough properties and cookies characteristics.<br />The results showed that the corn snack products enriched with food industry by-products (brewer&#39;s spent grain, wheat germ and apple pomace) can be used for production of functional cookies. These additives in an amount up to 15% improving the nutritional profile of the cookies, without adverse effects on the physical and sensory characteristics of the final product.</p>

Äpfel müssen für die Verwendung als Tafelobst in einen den Handelsgütebestimmungen entsprechenden Zustand aufbereitet werden. Die Anforderungen an die Äpfel der einzelnen Klassen sind in den Qualitätsnormen und Handelsklassen für die EG festgelegt. Automatische Verfahren zur Sortierung von Äpfeln nach Größe, Farbe und Form kommen zum Einsatz. Qualitätsfehler auf der Apfeloberfläche ohne Farbveränderungen der Fruchtoberfläche werden nicht erkannt. Ausgehend von der auf dem Markt vorhandenen Sortiertechnik für Obst und Gemüse sowie den aktuellen technischen Möglichkeiten der Oberflächenerkennung bzw. -prüfung wurde nach einer Lösung gesucht, auch unverfärbte Oberflächenformveränderungen zu erkennen. Unverfärbte Oberflächenformveränderungen sind häufig die Ursache von größeren, oft infektiösen Schadstellen nach der Apfelaufbereitung. Sie führen zu Ausfällen für die Erzeuger und den Handel. Verbraucherbefragungen ergaben Interesse für den Handel an einer Erkennung unverfärbter Oberflächenformveränderungen zur Qualitätsverbesserung des Marktangebotes. Dabei sind breite flache, breite tiefe und tiefe schmale unverfärbte Oberflächenformveränderungen von besonderem Interesse. Nach bisher vorliegenden Untersuchungsergebnissen können mit Hilfe des Reflexionsmeßverfahrens Qualitätsfehler erkannt werden, die mit Verfärbung der Schale oder des schalennahen Fruchtfleisches einhergehen. Für die Erkennung von Druckstellen, die nicht mit Verfärbung verbunden sind, ist das Reflexionsmeßverfahren daher nur bedingt geeignet. Zur Problemlösung wurde ein Versuchsstand für Triangulationsmessungen mit Liniengitterprojektion aufgebaut. Es wurden 900 Apfelstreifenbilder der Apfelsorten "Golden Delicious", "Red Delicious" und "Braeburn" mit Hilfe des Versuchsaufbaus und dem zur Bilderkennung entwickelten Erkennungsalgorithmus untersucht. Zur Gewinnung der Merkmale aus dem Streifenbild wurde auf die Anzahl bzw. die Abstände der Streifen zurückgegriffen. Die aufgenommenen Apfelstreifenbilder wurden durch den Erkennungsalgorithmus in die Merkmalsklassen "gesunde Oberfläche", "Stiel- und Kelchgrube" und "Druckstelle" gruppiert. Nach den erfolgten Untersuchungen ist das Streifenprojektionsverfahren für die Sortierprozesse von Fruchtoberflächen geeignet, wenn die effektive optische Auflösung des Gesamtsystems, die von der Paßfähigkeit der Rastergrößen der einzelnen Baugruppen des Systems (Streifengitter, Kamerachip, Bildspeicher) abhängt, angepaßt werden kann (Ausschalten störender Moiré-Effekte im erforderlichen Auflösungsbereich). Die dreidimensionale Oberflächenkontur des Apfels moduliert das Abbild der projizierten Streifen, wodurch dreidimensionale Informationen der Oberflächentopographie in einem zweidimensionalen Bild impliziert werden können. Unverfärbte Oberflächenformveränderungen sind mit dem beschriebenen Erkennungsalgorithmus zu klassifizieren. Der Einsatz der Bilderkennung in dieser zeitkritischen Anwendung kann nur hardware-orientiert gelöst werden. Ein prinzipieller funktionsfähiger Lösungsansatz ist mit dem Erkennungsalgorithmus geschaffen. / Apples must conform to the trade quality regulations to be deemed fit for consumption. The EU requirements for each individual class of apple are specified in quality standards and trade classifications. Automatic processes are used to sort apples by size, colour and shape. Non-discoloured surface discrepancies of the fruit are not identified. This paper aims to find a system which allows non-discoloured surface discrepancies based on the sorting method for fruit and vegetables available on the market and state-of-the-art technology. Non-discoloured surface discrepancies often caused by serious, and in many cases, infectious areas of damage after the apples are processed. They result in losses for the grower and the trade. Consumer research revealed trade interest in a system which could identify non-discoloured surface discrepancies, leading to an increase in the quality of goods supplied to the market. Broad shallow, broad deep and shallow narrow non-discoloured discrepancies are of particular relevance. Previous studies have shown that discoloured discrepancies (discrepancies involving discoloration of the skin, or the fruit tissue immediately below the skin) can be identified using reflection measurement procedures. Such procedures have limited applicability for evaluating bruises which do not result in skin discoloration. An experiment bench was constructed for triangulation readings of projected line patterns in an attempt to solve this problem. Altogether 900 stripe images of apples of the "Golden Delicious", "Red Delicious" and "Braeburn" varieties were analysed using the experiment design and the algorithm developed for evaluating the images. The characteristics of the stripe image were determined on the basis of the number of stripes, or the spacing between the stripes. The recorded apple stripe images were grouped into the following characteristic categories by the evaluation algorithm: "healthy surface", "stalk and calyx" and "bruise". The study shows that the stripe projection procedure is suitable for sorting fruit by surface quality if the effective optical resolution of the overall system can be adapted accordingly (i.e. if the interfering Moiré effects can be eliminated in the required resolution range). This resolution depends on the grid sizes of individual system components (stripe pattern, camera chip, image memory). The three-dimensional contours of the apple surface alter the reflection of the projected stripes, which allows three-dimensional information regarding the surface topography to be indicated in a two-dimensional image. Non-discoloured surface discrepancies may be classified with the evaluation algorithm described above. The only viable method of applying image evaluation procedures requires substantial hardware. The evaluation algorithm is one solution which functions in principle.

iPad自2010年推出以來，佳績不斷，成為史上銷售最快的電子產品，蘋果公司又於2011年乘勝推出iPad2，再次贏得全球矚目，消費者不但是引頸期盼，iPad所到之處更是門庭若市、大排長龍，這不但成為電子產品銷售奇蹟，更為人類閱讀歷史帶來了革命性的改變，為現代人的數位閱讀生活掀起浪潮，iPad影響之大，由此可見一斑。本研究聚焦於iPad進行深入研究，嘗試找到iPad之於此波數位閱讀浪潮，之所以能脫穎而出之原因，以及iPad之於此波數位閱讀浪潮，其所扮演的角色為何？iPad之於數位閱讀浪潮，未來發展趨勢為何？ 本研究採用質化研究法，包括文獻分析法、線上資料整理法，以及深度訪談法，研究整理之後，得到以下結論： iPad之所以能掀起數位閱讀浪潮，究其原因，可分內在與外在因素來看： 一、內在因素：iPad能提供使用者難忘的經驗，以體驗經濟理論來看，這的確符合了Pine & Gilmore的理論：體驗就是創造難忘的經驗，成為消費者美好的回憶，讓其體會到娛樂性、教育性、逃避現實以及一種美學的感受。 二、外在因素：長久以來電子書閱讀器或平板電腦市場已經累積了許多失敗的教訓，這些都成為iPad推出前可供參考的重要資訊，最後是環境的成熟，網際網路的普及、資訊環境的便利、雲端技術的進步等等，正像Malcolm Gladwell所觀察到的，許多變化來得又快又急，就在於觀念、行為、訊息及產品等，像傳染病一般突然間發作蔓延，一旦達到「引爆點」，就會忽然間將時代潮流一口氣往前邁進。 以上內外因素使得iPad具備了天時地利人和的關鍵因素，因此，當iPad一出，立刻造成全球搶購風潮，進而帶來數位閱讀之新氣象。 本研究發現如下： 一、iPad擴大了閱讀的族群，發揮其引導功能 過去不看書，或是過去不碰電子書的人，很可能因為對iPad的好奇，而開始接觸數位閱讀，可以說，iPad擴大了閱讀的人口，許多人隨時隨地瀏覽新聞、雜誌、網頁、書籍，無形之中鼓勵了閱讀風氣，增加了讀書的人口。 二、iPad豐富了閱讀內容：影音加文字、動態與互動 iPad使得閱讀這件事變得廣義而豐富，閱讀不再限於靜態的、文字的、黑白的，而是彩色的、動態的影音內容，甚至有互動的設計，使得閱讀內容多彩多姿。 三、iPad串起了閱讀行為，完成數位閱讀新載體架構 iPad能夠在體積小、行動力強的手機與功能強大的電腦之間，串起讀者的閱讀行為，提供所謂的無縫式閱讀，這都歸因於iPad能提供隨時隨地、隨開隨用的閱讀優勢，讓讀者可以在不同情境下取用資訊，串起現代人的數位閱讀行為，完成了數位閱讀的新載體架構。 iPad使得繁忙的現代人得以運用更簡便、更有效率的方式管理個人的閱讀生活。以數位閱讀的角度來看，iPad可以刺激學習者的動機，提高閱讀者的興趣，單一紙本閱讀的時代已經過去了，現在的人們可以用iPad體驗更豐富更精采的閱讀生活。 本研究建議如下： 一、iPad對閱讀的影響：iPad之於數位閱讀，由於其畫面亮麗、功能豐富，使用者可能會傾向於淺層理解、容易分心，收收E-mail、玩一下遊戲、看一段新聞等，閱讀可能會淪為片段式的所謂的「輕閱讀」，若要深入做學術研究，或是專題報告等，效果如何，不得而知。總之，iPad的確引起了使用者的閱讀興趣，但效果究竟如何，值得後續觀察。 二、iPad對人際關係的影響：iPad之問世，許多人愛不釋手，尤其是App Store，天天都有新玩意兒，人與機器互動的時間增加許多，如此以往，會不會造成人與人之間的疏離感，而且iPad2還有Facetime功能，人對機器講話的機會也增加了，這會不會使人與人相處的臨場感逐漸消失，至終引起社會問題，值得注意。 / iPad, since its launch in 2010, becomes the fastest-selling electronic product in history. Followed by iPad2 in 2011, iPad once again won the global attentions. Wherever iPad goes, numerous consumers wait in long lines. Sales of this electronic product, not only become a miracle, but also brought a revolutionary change into the reading history of mankind. The influence of iPad, is evident. This thesis focused on iPad, trying to find the reason why iPad is so outstanding among all the e-readers? What role is iPad palying in the wave of digital reading? And how iPad will lead the trends in the future of digital reading life of modern people? This study used qualitative research methods, including document analysis, online data compilation method, and depth interviews The important research results are as follows: Why iPad is able to set off a wave of digital reading? The answer can be divided into internal and external factors: (A) Internal factors: iPad offers users a memorable experience. From the experience economic theory point of view, it is indeed in line with the Pine & Gilmore’s theory: to create a memorable experience is the key to satisfy consumers. Let consumers feel entertainment, education, escapism, and an aesthetic experience. (B) external factors: For a long time, e-book readers or tablet PC have ended in failures. All these failures become important informations for iPad’s design. Meanwhile, the maturity of the environment, including the popularity of the Internet, information environment to facilitate the clouds and technological progress, etc., just like Malcolm Gladwell observed that, many changes came too fast and urgent, such as concept, behavior, messages and products. all of a sudden, everything reach the “tipping point”, and it will suddenly move forward the trend of the times in one breath. With internal and external factors, iPad causes a global phenomenon, brings the new digital reading era. What iPad brought into the reading history of mankind?: (A) iPad expanded reading population People who do not read books in the past, or people do not touch e-books before, probably because of the curiosity about iPad, they will start to read books with iPad.In another word, iPad has expanded reading population. More and more people start to read news, magazines, books with iPad, because it is so convenient. (B) iPad enriches the reading content: including audio, video and interactive design iPad makes reading broad and rich. Reading is no longer limited to static, text, black and white, but colorful, filled with video and even interactive. iPad enriches the content-of reading. (C) iPad brought the completion of digital reading behavior of modern people iPad, between the small, mobile cellphones and strong and powerful computers, plays the key role of the readers’ reading behavior, providing the so-called seamless reading, which offer the iPad users to read anytime, anywhere, so that the readers can access informations in different situations. iPad brought the completion of digital reading behavior of people. iPad offers modern people to build a efficient management of individual reading life. iPad can stimulate the readers’ motivation, improve their interest. With iPad, people can experience richer and more exciting reading life. The recommendations are as follows: (A) iPad and Reading: iPad, because of its bright screen, feature-rich, the users might be inclined to shallow understanding. They are easily distracted by collecting E-mail, playing games, and watching a piece of news. This kind of reading become so-called “light reading”. If people want to do further academic research or special reports, iPad is useful or not still remain unknown. It is worth follow-up observation. (B) iPad and interpersonal relationships: iPad is so amazing that many people enjoy using the device, especially the App new stuffs coming up every day. In the future, iPad will cause alienation between people or even cause social problems, we still need to observe it.

Eight phylloplane yeasts were isolated from backyard apple trees in Corvallis, OR. Yeast isolates were classified to genus or species level. All isolates were tested in vitro for antagonistic activity against the postharvest pathogens Botrytis cinerea and Penicillium expansum. Of these isolates, Aureobasidium pullulans, Sporobolomyces roseus Rhodotorula sp., consistently reduced mycelial growth of B. cinerea and P. expansum in nutrient yeast dextrose agar (pH 4.5 or 7.0) incubated for 8 or 30 days at 24 or 1 C, respectively. These three yeasts also were evaluated for their ability to suppress spore germination of B. cinerea and P. expansum in a gradient of apple juice concentrations and to suppress development of gray and blue mold lesions in inoculated fruits of Golden Delicious apple. Germination of B. cinerea and P. expansum was reduced significantly (P���0.05) when incubated with the yeast isolates in 100 or 50% apple juice, but not in 0, 1 or 10% apple juice. S. roseus and A. pullulans reduced significantly (P���0.05) the size of gray mold lesions in wounded fruit stored at 5 C and 24 C by 63 to 72 and 81 to 90%, respectively, when compared to the nontreated control. Size of blue mold lesions in fruit stored at 5 and 24 C also were reduced significantly (P���0.05) by 66 to 38 and 74 to 63%, respectively, when pre-treated with S. roseus and A. pullulans. In general, fruit rot suppression by some yeasts isolated in this study was similar in magnitude to suppression obtained by Cryptococcus laurentii isolate 87-108, a yeast with commercial potential to suppress postharvest rots of pome fruits. Pretreatment of apple wounds with washed cells of A. pullulans, S. roseus, Rhodotorula sp., resulted in disease suppression, but treatment of wounds with cell-free culture supernatant of these isolates did not affect lesion development. Population size of A. pullulans, S. roseus, and C. laurentii increased in apple wounds incubated at 5 or 24 C for up to 25 days, indicating that they colonized the wound site. Data collected in this study support the hypothesis that yeast isolates antagonize fruit pathogens by competing for nutrients in wounds on fruit surfaces. The isolates of A. pullulans and S. roseus show promise for commercial development. / Graduation date: 1997

Lagent de lutte biologique Aureobasidium pullulans souche Ach1-1 a présenté une grande potentialité dans le contrôle de Penicillium expansum, lagent causal de la pourriture bleue des pommes en conservation. Les mécanismes daction qui sont les plus impliqués dans son activité antagoniste ont été analysés, au cours de ce travail. Daprès des essais de protection réalisés sur pommes blessées, il apparaît que lefficacité de cette souche nest pas liée essentiellement à la sécrétion des métabolites toxiques dans le milieu ou à linduction de la résistance de fruit. Par contre, le mécanisme de la compétition pour la nutrition semble jouer un rôle important. Dans les essais in vitro, la souche antagoniste Ach1-1 a eu un important effet inhibiteur de la germination des conidies de P. expansum dans des milieux de jus de pomme à des faibles concentrations. Mais cet effet était réversible et les conidies inhibées étaient capables de germer une fois remises dans des conditions favorables en éléments nutritifs. Sur pommes blessées, leffet protecteur de la souche Ach1-1 vis-à-vis de P. expansum a été significativement affaibli par lajout dans les blessures de concentrations élevées des principaux composants des pommes en sucres, en vitamines et particulièrement en acides aminés. Il apparaît que lantagoniste exerce une activité fongistatique plus que fongicide vis-à-vis de P. expansum et agit par une compétition efficace pour les éléments nutritifs des blessures des pommes sans affecter la viabilité des conidies du pathogène. Une application exogène des acides aminés des pommes avec des concentrations croissantes dans les blessures a progressivement réduit lactivité antagoniste de la souche Ach1-1 sans altérer son développement dans les blessures, montrant que la compétition pour les acides aminés joue un rôle important dans la suppression de P. expansum. Ce résultat a été appuyé par lanalyse biochimique de la cinétique de lépuisement des acides aminés dans les blessures des pommes qui a montré que ces composés et particulièrement la sérine, la glycine et lacide glutamique sont mieux métabolisés par la souche antagoniste que par le pathogène. Lajout en excès de ces trois acides aminés en groupe ou individuellement dans les blessures des pommes a fortement réduit lefficacité de la souche Ach1-1 vis-à-vis de P. expansum. De plus, la présence de la sérine et la glycine avec des concentrations élevées dans des milieux synthétiques ne présentant aucune source azotée, a réduit leffet inhibiteur de la germination des conidies de P. expansum par la souche Ach1-1. Ainsi, ces acides aminés semble être parmi les éléments les plus limitants dans le mécanisme de la compétition./The biocontrol agent Aureobasidium pullulans strain Ach1-1 was very effective against Penicillium expansum, the causal agent of blue mold on stored apple. Modes of action that could be involved in its biocontrol activity were analysed in this work. According to some biocontrol trials on wounded apples, it appears that neither the production of metabolites nor the induction of fruit resistance were the principal modes of action of this strain. However the mechanism of nutrient competition appears to play an important role. In in vitro assays, the strain Ach1-1 had an important inhibitory effect of conidial germination of P. expansum in apple juice at low concentrations. However this inhibitory effect was suppressed when inhibited conidia were placed in favourable nutrients conditions. On wounded apples the protective activity of strain Ach1-1 against P. expansum was significantly reduced by adding, in the wounds, high concentrations of major apple compounds of sugar, vitamins and most particularly amino acids. It appears that the antagonist exerts a fungistatic rather than fungicidal activi ty on P. expansum as it can deplete limiting nutrient available at the infection site and inhibit conidia germination without affecting their viability. Moreover, an exogenous application of increasing apple amino acids concentrations in wounds had progressively reduced the antagonist activity of strain Ach1-1 without altering its development in wounds, suggesting that competition for apple amino acids by strain Ach1-1 plays an important role in suppressing P. expansum. This finding was strengthened by a time-course analysis of wounds amino acids during apple incubation in witch the strain Ach1-1 was able to assimilate apple amino acids better than P. expansum, most particularly Serine, Glycin and Glutamic acid. Exogenous additions of these three amino acids at high concentrations on apple wounds as a mixture or individually, strongly lowered the Biocontrol activity of strain Ach1-1. Moreover, the existence of amino acids serine and glycin at high concentration in synthetic media, without any nitrogen source, was able to reduce the inhibitory effect of conidial germination of P. expansum by the strain Ach1-1.Therefore these amino acids could be among the most limited nutrients in the mechanism of competition.

I denna studie undersöks i vilken utsträckning som teknikföretaget Apple syns i storstadspressen. För att göra detta har produkten Iphone 4S och konkurrenten Samsungs produkt Samsung Galaxy S II valts ut, eftersom båda lanserats samma år och riktar sig till samma målgrupp, i egenskap av att båda är så kallade “smartphones” med fingerstyrning och i övrigt likvärdiga funktioner.De storstadstidningar som undersökts är DN, SvD, Expressen, Aftonbladet, Göteborgs-Posten, Metro och Dagens Industri, eftersom de är de största tidningarna inom den svenska storstadspressen. Med hjälp av en kvantitativ undersökning har mängden artiklar som publicerades för vardera produkten under fyra veckor i samband med deras respektive lanseringar på den svenska marknaden undersökts. Resultatet visar att Iphone 4S förekom i betydligt större utsträckning än Galaxy S II.Vidare undersöks hur texterna i storstadspressen förhåller sig till Pressens samarbetsnämnds spelregler, det vill säga kriterier för vad som kan anses vara textreklam. Resultaten visar att flera av texterna bryter mot kriterierna i spelreglerna och passerar gränsen för vad som kan anses vara opartisk journalistik. I undersökningens slutsats ställs resultaten mot tre teorier: dagordningsteorin, innovationsteorin samt Gartners hypekurva.När resultaten granskats utifrån genre på artiklarna så kan det noteras att merparten av de fällda artiklarna var antingen notiser eller krönikor. Vanliga nyhetsartiklar förhöll sig oftast till spelreglerna.

In this study, extraction of phenolic compounds from sour cherry, peach and apple pomaces using high pressure extraction (HPE) and subcritical CO2 extraction (SCE) was investigated considering total phenolic content (TPC) and antiradical efficiency (AE). Different combinations of pressure (50, 125, 200 MPa), temperature (20, 40, 60&amp / #61616 / C), solid/solvent ratio (0.05, 0.15, 0.25 g/ml) and extraction time (10, 25, 40 min) were used for HPE according to the Box-Behnken experimental design. The variables used for SCE were pressure (20, 40, 60 MPa), temperature (40, 50, 60&amp / #61616 / C), ethanol concentration (14, 17, 20 wt%) and extraction time (10, 25, 40 min). For HPE, TPC and AE at the optimum conditions were 3.80 mg gae/g sample and 22 mg DPPH&amp / #729 / /g sample for sour cherry pomace, 0.93 mg gae/g sample and 6.40 mg DPPH&amp / #729 / /g sample for peach pomace and 2.08 mg gae/g sample and 10.80 mg DPPH&amp / #729 / /g sample for apple pomace, respectively. For SCE, TPC and AE at the optimum conditions were 0.60 mg gae/g sample and 2.30 mg DPPH&amp / #729 / /g sample for sour cherry pomace, 0.26 mg gae/g sample and 1.50 mg DPPH&amp / #729 / /g sample for peach pomace and 0.47 mg gae/g sample and 3.30 mg DPPH&amp / #729 / /g sample for apple pomace, respectively. Efficiency of HPE and SCE methods was compared with solvent extraction (SE). TPC and AE of the extracts obtained by HPE were close to those obtained by SE but the efficiency of SCE was low compared to HPE and SE. SCE was a better extraction method for apple and peach pomaces compared to sour cherry pomace.