Historians studying healing in the seventeenth century have concluded that there was no formalized medical profession in that century 1, yet by the end of the eighteenth century, a new standard caregiver of the sick had taken hold: the university-educated physician.2 This new breed was more educated, respected, and autonomous than healers of past centuries. Although the rise of the profession of medicine and the medical man has been well documented, historians have not explained why people increasingly enlisted the services of licensed practitioners. This dissertation will examine one crucial but under-analyzed aspect of illness and its treatment: the moral dimension, to argue that religious attitudes and beliefs played a vital role in society's conception of illness and the options available to alleviate suffering In early modern England, bodily health and the health of one's soul were inexorably entwined. It was therefore imperative that physicians be seen as capable of caring for both in order to be trusted with the whole health of the individual. Their ability to embrace the nexus of physical and spiritual health is what began to set the learned physician apart from all other types of healers over the course of the seventeenth century. They were able to combine the legacy of their university training with an emerging sense that their skills were ordained by God to cure disease, particularly those considered punishment for sin, in order to present themselves as protectors of a bodily health that was dependent on both physical and spiritual wellness In a society in which disease was largely interpreted in terms of moral agency, and the physical and spiritual world were so intimately connected, the responsibility of caring for the entire patient, both body and soul, was a matter of public trust. To assume such trust required the highest degree of moral authority, a trait which physicians argued was connected to being learned. Their ability to convince the public of their moral authority is what ultimately proved to be their most powerful weapon against lay and popular healers at a time when there were so many other viable options for health care 1Margaret Pelling, The Common Lot: Sickness, Medical Occupations and the Urban Poor in Early Modern England (New York: Longman, 1998), 244. Similar notions have been expressed by Roy Porter and Dorothy Porter, In Sickness and in Health: The British Experience 1650-1850 (London: Fourth Estate, 1988) and Lucinda Beier, 'In Sickness and in Health: A Seventeenth Century Family's Experience,' in Patients and Practitioners: Lay Perceptions of Medicine in Pre-Industrial Society, ed. Roy Porter (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 4-5. 2The group of medical men upon which this dissertation focuses are those who were considered in the seventeenth century to be 'learned physicians,' meaning they had earned university degrees in medicine, either in England or on the Continent. Such individuals were a fairly new group in England, the product of what Harold Cook has termed the intellectual and educational changes of the late fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. They are not necessarily fellows, licentiates, or even extra-licentiates of the College of Physicians, as this would restrict the group to a scant number. They are, moreover, individuals who considered themselves to be medical professionals, rather than those who merely dabbled in or 'topped off' their salaries through medicine / acase@tulane.edu

Les piles à combustible, dont le principe de fonctionnement est connu depuis le milieu du XIXème siècle, permettent de produire simultanément de l’électricité, de l’eau et de la chaleur à partir de combustibles et comburants tels que l’hydrogène et l’oxygène. À la fin des années cinquante, ces générateurs électrochimiques connaissent des perfectionnements majeurs, notamment grâce aux travaux de l’Anglais Francis T. Bacon, et sont utilisés aux États-Unis par la NASA (Aeronautics and Space Administration) au sein de ses programmes spatiaux. En France, des études sont mises en place au même moment dans des laboratoires publics et privés, tels que ceux d’Alsthom, de l’Institut français du pétrole et du CNRS (Centre national de la recherche scientifique), sous l’égide des Armées et de la DGRST (Délégation générale à la recherche scientifique et technique), organisme d’État chargé de la politique de la recherche. Jusqu’au début des années quatre-vingt, des millions de francs sont ainsi investis et des centaines de chercheurs, ingénieurs et techniciens sont mobilisés pour améliorer la technique, travailler à son adaptation aux automobiles électriques, aux trains, aux sous-marins, à la construction de centrales de production industrielle d’électricité ou encore à la fourniture de solutions militaires. Alors que de nos jours les piles à combustible apparaissent en France comme des options majeures pour la transition énergétique, c’est tout l’objet de cette thèse que de retracer, restituer et analyser cette partie de leur histoire grâce à une enquête de terrain fondée sur la récolte d’archives et la réalisation d’entretiens avec des acteurs ayant participé aux recherches. Nous mettrons tout d’abord au jour les conditions socio-historiques et les dynamiques structurelles qui font que les piles à combustible deviennent un thème d’intérêt en France à la fin des années cinquante. Nous montrerons ensuite comment les études sont organisées puis réorientées dans les années soixante et soixante-dix en fonction de l’évolution du collectif de pensée et du réseau social créés autour de la technique. Enfin, nous examinerons l’ensemble des raisons politiques, économiques, scientifiques et sociales pour lesquelles ces travaux sont presque tous abandonnés au début des années quatre-vingt. / Fuel cells, which operation principle is known since the middle of the 19th century, allow to produce electricy, water and heat simultaneously from fuels and combustives like hydrogen and oxygen. At the end of the 50s, these electrochemical generators are perfected, particularly thanks to the work of Francis T. Bacon in England, and are used in the USA by NASA (Aeronautics and Space Administration) for space programs. In France at the same period, private and public laboratories as Alsthom, the IFP (French Petroleum Institute) and the CNRS (French National Center for Scientific Research) start their own studies under the supervision of the Ministry of Defense and the DGRST (General Commission for for Scientific and Technical Research), a national institution in charge of scientific research policy. Until the beginning of the 80s, millions are thus invested and hundreds of researchers, engineers and technicians are mobilized to improve fuel cells, work on their adaptation to electrical cars, trains, submarines, on the construction of fuel cell power plants or specific military equipments. Now that in France fuel cells are considered as major options for energy transition, the objective of this dissertation paper is to analyze this period of their history thanks to a field investigation based on numerous archives and interviews with stakeholders who contributed to researches. We will first expose socio-historical conditions and structural dynamics which make fuel cells become a theme of national interest at the end of the 50s. We will then show how studies are organized and reoriented in the 60s and 70s according to the evolution of the thought collective and the social network created around fuel cells. Finally we will examine all political, economic, scientific and social reasons which led to drop almost all fuel cell researches in the country at the beginning of the 80s.

O naturalista dinamarquês Peter Wilhelm Lund (1801-1880), considerado o pai da Paleontologia brasileira, professava a chamada Teoria do Catastrofismo, de Georges Cuvier. Foi para tentar comprovar esta teoria que o naturalista escavou milhares de fósseis nas cavernas de Lagoa Santa (MG) entre 1835 e 1844, quando descreveu dezenas de espécies extintas do período Pleistoceno. Durante este trabalho, Lund descobriu os esqueletos fossilizados de cerca de 30 seres humanos, que ficaram conhecidos como os Homens de Lagoa Santa. Logo após esta descoberta, o naturalista enviou suas coleções para a Dinamarca e pôs um fim nos trabalhos de campo, sem no entanto voltar ao seu país e permanecendo no Brasil até sua morte. <br />A maior questão não respondida sobre a vida de Peter Lund, e o objetivo deste trabalho, é entender porque afinal ele parou de pesquisar? O próprio Lund alegou falta de dinheiro. Mas seus biógrafos escolheram como bode espiatório o cansaço físico e intelectual após anos de trabalho ininterrupto nas cavernas. <br />A resposta, no entanto, encontra-se na coleção de cartas de Lund, arquivadas na Biblioteca Real de Copenhagen. O presente trabalho é resultado do estudo de uma pequena parte desta correspondências. Analisou-se a vida do naturalista à luz da sua relação com a família, mestres e amigos no Brasil e na Dinamarca, na esperança de identificar a razão para o término das pesquisas de um dos mais influentes cientistas do Brasil no século XIX.

<p>This thesis examines the Swedish political response to the challenges posed by gene technology, seen through the prism of governmental commissions. It discerns and analyses continuities and changes in the Swedish political conception of gene technology, over the course of two decades, 1980–2000. This is done by thematically following ideas of “risks” and “ethics” as they are represented in the inner workings and reception of three governmental commissions. The Gene-Ethics Commission (1981–1984), the Gene Technology Commission (1990–1992) and the Biotechnology Commission (1997–2000) form the empirical focal points of this analysis. The first two provided preparatory policy proposals that preceded the implementation of the Swedish gene technology laws of 1991 and 1994. The last one aimed at presenting a comprehensive Swedish biotechnology policy for the new millennium.</p><p> The study takes into account the role of governmental commissions as arenas where science and politics intersect in Swedish political life, and illuminates how this type of “boundary organisation”, placed on the border of science and politics, impinges on the understanding of the gene technology issue. The commissions have looked into the limits, dangers, possibilities and future applications of gene technology. They have been appointed to deal with the problematic task of distinguishing between what is routine and untested practices, realistic prediction and “science fiction”, what are unique problems and what are problems substantially similar to older ones, what constitutes a responsible approach as opposed to misconduct and what it means to let things “get out of hand” in contrast to being “in control”. Throughout a period of twenty years, media reports have continued to frame the challenges posed by gene technology as a task of balancing risks and benefits, walking the fine line between “frankenfoods” and “miracle drugs”. </p><p>One salient problem for the commissions to solve was that science and industry seemed to promote a technology the public opposed and resisted, at least in parts. For both politics and science to gain, or regain, public trust it needed to demonstrate that risks – be it environmental, ethical or health related ones – were under control. Under the surface, it was much more complicated than “science helping politics” to make informed and rational decisions on how to formulate a regulatory policy. Could experts be trusted to participate in policy-making in a neutral way and was it not important, in accordance with democratic norms, to involve the public? </p>

<p>The purpose of this essay is to try and bring clarity to the question, what is Chick Lit and which factors make it so popular. My thesis  endeavors to explain that it is not only the promise of light entertainment that draws the reader, but also the possibility that in an easy way they can read about existential questions such as self-development  and life -choices.</p><p>As well as mapping out Chick Lit´s specific characteristics, followed by previous research on the subject and the litterateur’s history, I have found it interesting to discuss the female characters, their personalities and life choice’s against a backdrop of existentialistic philosophy.</p><p>In my research of this form of literateur I have discovered that chick lit often deals with existential universal problems, and that in order to be entertaining these books must contain a serious element.</p>

<p>Based on 30 years of work experience in TV and film production, I have made a phenomenological analysis of my perception of meaning in work - how it arises and how it is undermined. The story starts in my experience of early professional film making in the 1980's and describes how a change to work in TV production required the development of a new professional identity. </p><p>The text also illustrates how as a female director I have managed my role in a male dominated and structured work environment. Being defined as an exception from the male norm has pushed me towards femininist reflection and the need to redefine my own work role - the generally accepted view having felt uncomfortable. </p><p>An analysis of structural change in TV and film production shows how market pressures and ways of thought have increasingly invaded cultural endeavour. Professional spheres of influence are weakened, while developments in the media are characterised by a commercialism which encroaches more and more upon artistic, spiritual and moral values. This attitude, where quality is in retreat, has transformedprogramme makers from creative originators into becoming suppliers of raw material in a factory- like process geared to produce great volume at low cost.</p><p>The aim of this essay is to show how changes in society and in TV and film making have affected my perception of my work. Structural transformation in the media has circumscribed the scope for creative play as an important source of energy and inspiration in work and it has eroded my feeling that work is personally meaningful.</p><p> </p>

<p>Knut Wicksell var en briljant ekonom som främst visade på nya tillämpningar på andras ekonomiska teorier. Med min uppsats visar jag på en koppling mellan utilitarismen och nymalthusianismen, teorier som Wicksell var en stor anhängare av, som resulterar i en ekonomisk teori som går att koppla till det som den franske filosofen och idéhistorikern Michel Foucault kallar biopolitik. Statens roll bör enligt Wicksell vara att förädla individerna; att genom politiska åtgärder förbättra de enskilda individernas livskvalitet samt deras kvalité som producerande samhällsmedborgare.</p><p>På ett praktiskt plan handlar det om att medvetandegöra individernas möjlighet till kapitalbildning och därmed ge de möjligheter att lyfta sig själv upp ur fattigdom och misär. Vägen går genom kunskap och barnbegränsning; dessa två faktorer ger individen ett större värde inom samhället eftersom han inte lika lätt går att byta ut samtidigt som det ger staten en tydlig och viktig uppgift; staten ska skydda befolkningen från smärta och orätt. Dessa syften för stat och medborgare leder, tillsammans med en ökad kunskap, till kapitalutjämning inom samhället. Men enligt Wicksell är det viktigt att denna kapitalutjämning ska ske genom att individens arbete ger honom en rättmätig del av kapitalbildningen, något som staten bör garantera, men inte genom att man i onödan dränerar rika med hjälp av skatter på kapital, gåvor och arv.</p>

<p>Sahlinaffären blev ett hinder på Mona Sahlins väg till statsministerposten. Efter det mediedrev somdrogs i gång av kvällstidningarna sällade sig ett antal feminister till Sahlins försvar. Det är dessaförsvarstal och de svar på dessa inlägg som är analysmaterialet. Frågan som jag vill ställa är: vilkamodeller lägger företrädare för feminismen fram för att förklara Sahlins misstag samt hennesdåvarande för mediedrevet hårt utsatta position. Syftet är att göra en genusanalys på hur uppdelatsamhället är efter kön. Genom att belysa de inslag i debatten som handlar om kvinnans roll i familjoch samhälle, visa på fundamentala skillnader i synen på kön och ansvar, i det att kvinnan oavsettarbetssituation fortfarande har ett huvudansvar för hem (reproduktion) medan mannens ansvar ärdet som ligger utanför hemmet (produktion). Även om mycket har förändrats i samhället så är detfortfarande mycket som är sig likt. Jag vill visa på att denna uppdelning i olika genus finns kvaräven för kvinnor som kan nå ända upp till den absoluta politiska toppen i vårt samhälle.Utöver detta visade det sig att feminister var oeniga om man borde stödja Sahlin över huvud taget;att få, som några menade, en kvinnofientlig politiker som Sahlin som statsminister skulle i än störreutsträckning leda till att jämlikhet ersattes med jämställdhet som politiskt mål, att orättvisornabegränsades till att kopplas till kön och lämna klassfrågan utanför. Risken fanns, menade man, attfeminismen skulle urholkas till medel- och överklasskvinnors rätt till städhjälp och högt uppsattaarbeten.Sahlinaffären blev ett hinder på Mona Sahlins väg till statsministerposten. Efter det mediedrev somdrogs i gång av kvällstidningarna sällade sig ett antal feminister till Sahlins försvar. Det är dessaförsvarstal och de svar på dessa inlägg som är analysmaterialet. Frågan som jag vill ställa är: vilkamodeller lägger företrädare för feminismen fram för att förklara Sahlins misstag samt hennesdåvarande för mediedrevet hårt utsatta position. Syftet är att göra en genusanalys på hur uppdelatsamhället är efter kön. Genom att belysa de inslag i debatten som handlar om kvinnans roll i familjoch samhälle, visa på fundamentala skillnader i synen på kön och ansvar, i det att kvinnan oavsettarbetssituation fortfarande har ett huvudansvar för hem (reproduktion) medan mannens ansvar ärdet som ligger utanför hemmet (produktion). Även om mycket har förändrats i samhället så är detfortfarande mycket som är sig likt. Jag vill visa på att denna uppdelning i olika genus finns kvaräven för kvinnor som kan nå ända upp till den absoluta politiska toppen i vårt samhälle.Utöver detta visade det sig att feminister var oeniga om man borde stödja Sahlin över huvud taget;att få, som några menade, en kvinnofientlig politiker som Sahlin som statsminister skulle i än störreutsträckning leda till att jämlikhet ersattes med jämställdhet som politiskt mål, att orättvisornabegränsades till att kopplas till kön och lämna klassfrågan utanför. Risken fanns, menade man, attfeminismen skulle urholkas till medel- och överklasskvinnors rätt till städhjälp och högt uppsatta arbeten.</p>

We investigate the origins of mathematical societies and journals. We argue that the origins of today’s professional societies and journals have their roots in the informal gatherings of mathematicians in 17th century Italy, France, and England. The small gatherings in these nations began as academies and after gaining government recognition and support, they became the ancestors of the professional societies that exist today. We provide a brief background on the influences of the Renaissance and Reformation before discussing the formation of mathematical academies in each country.

This study of the institutionalization and professionalization of agricultural chemistry during the second half of the nineteenth century analyses the relationship between chemical theories and social issues, ideas and experience of recycling, the development of fertilizers, and industrialization of agriculture. The study mainly takes a history of science and environmental history perspective with focus on the Swedish case. It does, however, address the international context offering a historical perspective of issues such as the relationship between population and natural resources, the sustainability of society and connections between science, technology and nature. The center of this study consists of an analysis of the work of the following agricultural chemists employed by the Swedish Royal Agricultural Society, enumerated in chronological order: Alexander Müller, Carl Erik Bergstrand, and Lars Fredrik Nilson. Other actors, such as agriculturists, administrators and politicians, were also important in the formation of agricultural chemistry in Sweden. Changes of aims and agricultural chemical ideals during the period of study reflect changes in society and shifting ideologies. During the second half of the nineteenth century a national "agricultural scientific infrastructure" was erected with experimental stations, agricultural schools, local experimental fields and agrarian experts. This network constituted a basis for agricultural science in society and functioned as an important channel for the modernization of agriculture and society. With agricultural chemistry as an empirical point of departure, this thesis also analyzes the transformations of agriculture with the establishment of cultural, economical and physical links between agriculture and the surrounding world. Theories about chemical cycles promoted recycling of nutrition and other materials between the city and the countryside, thereby connecting agriculture to the city. The development of new mineral and nitrogenous fertilizers gradually involved an increased use of inorganic raw materials and energy to manufacture nutrition. This process resulted in the intertwining of agriculture, science, mining, industry and energy production and the creation of an agro- industrial network, which was crucial for the development of agriculture during the twentieth century. In this context, agricultural science legitimized the development toward resource intensive farming methods. / digitalisering@umu