National accounting and national accounts concepts have very strong links to business accounting and business accounts concepts, and economic theory. The current trend in national accounting work is to carry out the task based on a framework which functions as an integrated general purpose statistical information system. The principal constraints to this approach are data availability which is a function of the standard and serviceability of the country's national statistical system, and general conventional accounting principles. It is submitted that one of the important properties that a system of national accounts should possess is inherent flexibility in order to allow such a system to respond sensitively to developments in economic theory and specialized needs/demands. Even though the development of certain national accounting principles can be traced back to the seventeenth century, national accounting generally is a twentieth century invention, with the development of the SNA as a very major breakthrough. One of the SNA's most valuable contributions is its provision of a consistent and comprehensive framework in terms of national accounting concepts, definitions and principles. The application of the conventional national accounting principles to Tonga and other developing countries has been confronted with many conceptual and statistical problems. The existence of imperfect national price systems in developing countries has led many critics to question the validity of national income estimates for such countries. It has been submitted that such imperfection of national price systems has been essentially a function of constraints on commodity and factor movements. It is argued however that many such restrictions cannot be applied with significant force to the case of Tonga and that there exists great validity and usefulness in making national income estimation. Non-market portion of total production in the economy of Tonga is significant. Its estimation for national accounting purposes is faced with the conceptual problems of setting appropriate boundary of production and imputation. The recommendations of the SNA with regard to the former are endorsed for national accounting practice in Tonga with special attention to transactions such as the unilateral provisions of free and/or partially paid services by Tongans to government and church authorities. Due to the predominantly agricultural character of the Tongan economy and the existence of a partial subsistence sector, certain conceptual problems arising from the need to make clear distinctions between production and consumption, and saving and investment in accordance with the Keynesian framework are bound to prevail with regard to national accounting in the Kingdom. There are also the problems associated with any attempt to distinguish the various factor shares of national income. Recommendations and comments concerning possible means of minimizing these problems or perhaps putting such, problems into some balanced perspective, are presented. Statistical problems faced with national accounting work in Tonga are generally associated with the inadequacy and unreliability of basic national accounting statistics, and the shortage of appropriate material and human resources. While most of the statistical problems can be substantially alleviated by more liberal direction of resources to the process of data collection and national income estimation, some of the statistical problems like the conceptual problems would persist in Tonga as long as the general standard of the Kingdom's national statistical system is low and the general state of under-development prevails. A close scrutiny of the general performance and structure of the Tongan economy, current and anticipated future needs/demands for various national accounting statistical series, and current and anticipated future status of data availability, suggests that a system of national accounts for Tonga which could bring out the important economic characteristics and inter-relationships of important sectors in the economy would be considered as very desirable. With the increasing complexity of the Kingdom's economy and associated increasing diversity of needs/demands for appropriate statistical series, it is felt that a system of national accounts which offers greater disaggregation of important aggregates and which views the production sector at some component levels such as "Agricultural", "Non-Agricultural, Non-Financial" and "Financial" production sub-sectors even though it is a diversion from the general recommendations of the SNA, would merit a high level of serviceability. A system of national accounts which is essentially based on a system of sector accounts with the incorporation of the above stated partitioning of the production sector is therefore proposed for Tonga. The proposed system also consists of sets of supplementary tables and aggregative accounts which aim at providing essential supplementary information via the adoption of different classification systems or appropriate aggregations of information exhibited in the sector accounts. Issues concerning suggested future expansion of the proposed system to include appropriate input-output matrices and flow of funds tables and the need for a proper development and application of an appropriate social accounting matrix (SAM) for Tonga are also discussed. The proposed system of national accounts for Tonga is relatively comprehensive and possesses inherent flexibility which is a reflection of its primary inheritance from the SNA. Even though it might take some time before the proposed design can be implemented in full, its relative comprehensiveness would automatically serve a lot of useful purposes e.g. its explicit facilitation of attention to gaps in the existing data series. The implementation of the proposed system is regarded as a feasible long term project for the Tonga national statistical agency. The extent to which it can be implemented in the very near future given Government's acceptance, would depend heavily on the priority level the Tonga Government attaches or would attach to the task of developing and improving the Kingdom's national accounting system.

This paper aims to explore a Tongan notion of development –'fakalakalaka' – in light of Western notions of development. Two case studies of international development aid schemes illustrate the impact of Tongan development ideas in practice. Drawing on a number of ethnographers' work on Tonga, 'fakalakalaka' appears broader than the Western notion of development. The latter is characterised by influential ideals of controllability and industrialisation. The notion of development among Tongans, on the other hand, tends to be directed by an underlying persistence that, for instance, reflects Tongan core values regarding social organisation. The production of textile 'koloa', controlled by women, emerges as central to the accomplishment of this three-dimensional development notion of intertwined physical, mental and spiritual aspects. The importance attributed to this specific kind of textile has increased in recent years and found two additional roles, or development strategies, in Tongans' contemporary transnational world.

This thesis is an application of the theory and method of the comparative world-systems approach to West Polynesia. This study examines the interactions between the archipelagos of Tonga, Fiji, and Samoa during the period between 1770 and 1870, that include the exchange in prestige valuables, military/political interactions, and marriages. Using the nested interaction net model of Chase-Dunn and Hall, this thesis analyzes the interactions in order to determine whether the interactions display systemic properties, that is to say whether the interactions are important in the social reproduction in each of the particular societal units of the region. The archival evidence shows that the region was an indigenous world-system, whereby interactions served to maintain the stability of the system, which then as a result of European involvement in the region resulted in an increase of Tongan political domination, before the entire system was broken up and governed by different colonial powers. / Graduate

This thesis aims to undertake an evaluation of the potential for renewable energy to be used as a mechanism for the development of the Pacific region. Further to this, it examines whether NZ and the EU are well placed to contribute to any renewable energy transition in these countries by analysing their internal energy policy documents, policy ties to the Pacific region and previous actions in the renewable energy arena. The Tonga Energy Road Map, a progressive plan for renewable energy implementation, is then investigated in depth to determine its effectiveness thus far and its potential as a model for other Pacific island nations.

The largest earthquakes occur along the subduction thrust interface known as the seismogenic zone. Until recently, erosive margins like Tonga and Honshu have been thought to be unable to support earthquakes with magnitudes higher than 8.5. However, Mw 9, 2011 Tohoku-oki earthquake in Honshu requires a reevaluation of this notion. The seismic potential of Tonga is likely affected by the vertical spatial extent of the up-dip and down-dip limits, which confines the seismogenic zone. The larger the area of the seismogenic zone, the higher the potential for larger earthquakes. Some models suggest that down-dip limit coincides with the fore-arc Moho while others suggest that they are coincident with thermally controlled mineralogical phase changes during slab descent. Tonga is an ideal place to discriminate between these possibilities, as the incoming Pacific plate is cold and thick with rapid convergence, extending cool isotherms deep into the system. In contrast, the fore-arc Moho is only ~16 km deep. This study tests the hypothesis that the down-dip limit of the Tonga seismogenic zone coincides with the fore-arc Moho and thus ceases the seismicity by initiating a stable sliding between the mantle and the subducting crust. We determine the depth of the down-dip limit in Tonga by mapping the distribution of earthquakes recorded for a six-month period from January 1, 2010 to June 30, 2010 by a deployment of ocean bottom seismographs above the Tonga subduction zone. The earthquakes are located by a combination of grid-search method and least-square inversion of the observed arrival times. We identified a down-dip limit at a minimum depth of about 40 km below the sea level suggesting that the hypothesis is failed. Therefore, the commonly held idea that down-dip limit is coincides with the fore-arc Moho is not true in the Tonga case. It is likely controlled by the degree of serpentinization in the mantle wedge controlling the transition from stick-slip to stable sliding.

The majority of research about parent involvement and family engagement indicates a positive relationship between parent involvement and student achievement. However, parent involvement as a useful strategy in education in developing countries is not well known, let alone researched. Until the current study no research has been published specifically about the types and frequency of family engagement in Tonga. This means there is no frame of reference for teachers, administrators and parents in Tonga to evaluate the applicability of existing family engagement research which has been predominantly conducted in developed countries, to schools in Tonga. This research is a descriptive, exploratory study to understand parent involvement in Tonga from the perspective of Tongan parents and teachers. The guiding framework was developed by Hoover-Dempsey and Sandler (1995) who identified three key constructs that influence parents' decisions for involvement -- parent motivational beliefs, invitations to be involved, and life context variables. Quantitative and qualitative methods were used to gather and analyze data that were gathered from teachers (n=88) and parents (n=503) during focus groups and surveys at four schools that are owned and operated by The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in Tonga. The overarching desire was to understand why parents make the choices they do about the types and frequency of their involvement. Factor analysis and reliability tests supported the use of the selected survey instruments in this study. Some findings were similar to those found in research in developed countries including the way Tongan parents and teachers defined what parent involvement is. Further research could identify parent involvement behaviors that are particularly relevant in Tonga which improve student achievement Although the schools involved in this study are English speaking schools, language did not appear to be a strong barrier or enabler for parent involvement. However, a strong culture of respect and duty was repeatedly mentioned as potentially inhibiting parent involvement. Invitations appear to play a significant positive role in promoting parent involvement and may help mitigate parents' reluctance to participate. Encouraging and training teachers to extend effective invitations to parents which include specific suggestions for involvement may help increase the frequency of parent involvement.

<p>Operation Tonga var en del av de allierades invasion av Hitlers Fort Europa. Syftet med operationen var att skydda de landstigande styrkorna vid Normandies östra flank. Operationen genomfördes av major John Howard och hans glidflygplansburna trupper från Oxford and Buckinghamshires lätta infanteriregemente. Denna enhet genomförde en operation utan understöd eller underhåll från egna förband och hade en begränsad möjlighet att fysiskt kunna medföra utrustning, likt den svenska luftburna bataljonen.</p><p>Syftet med uppsatsen var att undersöka om förberedelser och förövning är nyckeln till framgång när en enhet skall anfalla en starkare försvarsgrupperad enhet.</p><p>Uppsatsen innehåller en analys av de förberedelser som gjordes inför operation Tonga utifrån de grundläggande förmågorna. Utifrån den analysen förs en diskussion över dessa förberedelsers betydelse utifrån de taktiska grundprinciperna för markarenan. Analysen och diskussionen visar att förberedelserna och förövningen ledde till att chefen fick en större handlingsfrihet och att enheten fick ett högre stridstempo och genom det höga stridstempot kunde upprätthålla sin överraskning som skapats genom en coup de main operation. Det höga stridstempot och överraskningen gjorde att major Howard kunde ta initiativet i striden och nå lokal överlägsenhet och på så vis slå den försvarsgrupperade fienden vid bron Pegasus bridge. Det höga stridstempot uppnåddes tack vare förbandets förövning och förberedelser samt de goda underrättelser som major John Howard hade tillgång till vid framtagandet av sin stridsplan.</p> / <p>Operation Tonga served a bigger purpose than to take control over Pegasus bridge. The purpose of the operation was to protect the flank of the allied troops at Normandy. The operation was carried out by Major John Howard and his troops from the Oxford and Buckinghamshire light infantry regiment. This unit had no support or supply assistance from other units and had limited capability to bring equipment, just like the Swedish air assault battalion.</p><p>The purpose of this essay was to examine if preparations is the key to success when one unit is about to bring out an assault against a stronger, dug in unit.</p><p>This essay contains an analysis of the preparations on the basis of the basic abilities. Those preparations are later discussed based on the principals of ground tactics in order to see the effects of the preparations in the operation. The analysis and the discussion show that the unit gained a higher tempo of combat and achieved a surprise element. The high tempo of combat and the surprise made it possible for Major Howard to take the initiative in the battle and achieve local superiority. That made it possible for Major Howard to defeat the dug in enemy at Pegasus bridge. The high tempo of combat was possible because of the units’ preparations and the intelligence reports Major John Howard got as support when planning for combat.</p>

Operation Tonga var en del av de allierades invasion av Hitlers Fort Europa. Syftet med operationen var att skydda de landstigande styrkorna vid Normandies östra flank. Operationen genomfördes av major John Howard och hans glidflygplansburna trupper från Oxford and Buckinghamshires lätta infanteriregemente. Denna enhet genomförde en operation utan understöd eller underhåll från egna förband och hade en begränsad möjlighet att fysiskt kunna medföra utrustning, likt den svenska luftburna bataljonen. Syftet med uppsatsen var att undersöka om förberedelser och förövning är nyckeln till framgång när en enhet skall anfalla en starkare försvarsgrupperad enhet. Uppsatsen innehåller en analys av de förberedelser som gjordes inför operation Tonga utifrån de grundläggande förmågorna. Utifrån den analysen förs en diskussion över dessa förberedelsers betydelse utifrån de taktiska grundprinciperna för markarenan. Analysen och diskussionen visar att förberedelserna och förövningen ledde till att chefen fick en större handlingsfrihet och att enheten fick ett högre stridstempo och genom det höga stridstempot kunde upprätthålla sin överraskning som skapats genom en coup de main operation. Det höga stridstempot och överraskningen gjorde att major Howard kunde ta initiativet i striden och nå lokal överlägsenhet och på så vis slå den försvarsgrupperade fienden vid bron Pegasus bridge. Det höga stridstempot uppnåddes tack vare förbandets förövning och förberedelser samt de goda underrättelser som major John Howard hade tillgång till vid framtagandet av sin stridsplan. / Operation Tonga served a bigger purpose than to take control over Pegasus bridge. The purpose of the operation was to protect the flank of the allied troops at Normandy. The operation was carried out by Major John Howard and his troops from the Oxford and Buckinghamshire light infantry regiment. This unit had no support or supply assistance from other units and had limited capability to bring equipment, just like the Swedish air assault battalion. The purpose of this essay was to examine if preparations is the key to success when one unit is about to bring out an assault against a stronger, dug in unit. This essay contains an analysis of the preparations on the basis of the basic abilities. Those preparations are later discussed based on the principals of ground tactics in order to see the effects of the preparations in the operation. The analysis and the discussion show that the unit gained a higher tempo of combat and achieved a surprise element. The high tempo of combat and the surprise made it possible for Major Howard to take the initiative in the battle and achieve local superiority. That made it possible for Major Howard to defeat the dug in enemy at Pegasus bridge. The high tempo of combat was possible because of the units’ preparations and the intelligence reports Major John Howard got as support when planning for combat.

The basement of the Tonga intraoceanic forearc comprises Eocene arc volcanic crust formed during the earliest phases of subduction. Volcanic rocks recovered from the forearc include boninites and arc tholeiites, apparently erupted into and upon older mid-oceanic ridge tholeiites. Rock assemblages suggest that the forearc basement is a likely analog for large supra-subduction zone (SSZ) ophiolites not only in structure and Ethology, but also in the style of hydrothermal alteration. Dredged volcanic samples from the central Tonga forearc (20-24�� S) exhibit the effects of seafloor weathering, low (<200��C, principally <100��C) alteration, and high temperature (>200��C) alteration. Tholeiites and arc tholeiites are significantly more altered than boninites. Seafloor weathering is due to extensive interaction with cold oxidizing seawater, and is characterized by red-brown staining and the presence of Fe-oxyhydroxides. Low temperature alteration is due to circulation of evolving seawater-derived fluids through the volcanic section until fluid pathways were closed by secondary mineral precipitation. Low temperature alteration is characterized by smectites, celadonite, phillipsite, mixed-layer smectite/chlorite, carbonates, and silica. All phases fill veins and cavities; clay minerals and silica also replace the mesostasis and groundmass phases. Low temperature alteration enriches the bulk rock in K, Ba, and Na, and mobilizes other elements to varying extents. The few high temperature samples are characterized by mobilizes other elements to varying extents. The few high temperature samples are characterized by epidote, chlorite, quartz, oxides, and fibrous amphibole, which replace groundmass and phenocrysts, and fill cavities, and are presumed to have originated in zones of concentrated hydrothermal upflow.These three alteration types are similar to those seen in many ophiolites such as Troodos, where low temperatures prevailed in the volcanic section except in localized upflow zones. Alteration mineral chemistries are also broadly similar to those observed for the Troodos Ophiolite. Tonga forearc alteration differs from mid-oceanic ridge alteration in the presence of Al-rich dioctahedral smectites (not common in mid-oceanic ridge crust), the high Al content of saponite, and the predominance of K as an interlayer cation in clays. Hydrothermal alteration of the Tonga forearc is likely the product of extensive interaction with compositionally evolving seawater-derived fluids beginning at the time of emplacement. The distribution and intensity of alteration in these crustal sections depend principally on the porosity and permeability of the crust during alteration, which are influenced by the primary porosity, igneous morphology, and the presence of faults and fractures which could affect fluid flow. / Graduation date: 1999

The starting point for a consideration of law in former colonies is often a law/custom binary whereby law is the formal legal system imposed during the colonial occupation and retained at independence, and custom the local law disrupted by colonialism. In most South Pacific small island countries, this dichotomy of law and custom has been formalized by the protection of custom by constitutional or statutory provisions. The protection of custom was carried out as a celebration of local culture at Independence, but the effect has been to stymie the development of local custom and to reinforce custom’s post-colonial subsidiary position relative to the formalized legal system. The Kingdom of Tonga avoided the indirect rule of late colonialism and as a result Tonga’s legal system was never dichotomized into law and custom. There was no constitutional protection of custom because custom was never characterized as something other than law. Although it is undeniable that the direction of the development of law in Tonga was impacted by the presence of the Imperial project in the region, the legal change that occurred was led by Tongans. The starting point for legal change in Tonga was, and continues to be Tongan legal traditions even though local custom has not been formally protected. This project considers the two human concepts of apology and the protection of reputation. In Tonga’s hierarchical society both concepts already represented important legal traditions when the formal British-style legal system was adopted. However, these legal traditions were not relegated to something ‘other’ than law. The former continued as an informal legal tradition that addressed legal harms not recognized by adopted legal traditions, while the latter was incorporated into the adopted formal legal system with provisions that continued to reflect the distinctive Tongan society. Both legal traditions have faced challenges recently. Apology was no longer recognized as an efficacious remedy for women in the case of domestic abuse. The protection of the inviolable reputations of the monarch and nobility was limited by the exercise of the constitutional right of the freedom of the press. In both cases Tongans chose to exercise adopted constitutional rights in order to limit what was perceived to be an abuse of the exercise of power in the hierarchical society. Because local legal traditions had not been preserved as something apart from Tongan law, this development did not signal the end of Tongan legal traditions. Rather, it demonstrated the continuing development of Tongan law. / Graduate