L’érythropoïèse est un processus extrêmement prolifératif, et qui doit donc être très étroitement régulé. L’érythropoïétine (EPO) est l’un des facteurs absolument nécessaires à l’érythropoïèse. Cependant, dans la moelle osseuse, la quantité d'EPO circulante est sous-optimale et la capacité des érythroblastes à survivre dépend donc de leur sensibilité à l'EPO. Les facteurs modulant la réponse à l'EPO au cours de l'érythropoïèse sont encore largement inconnus.Nous avons donc voulu explorer plusieurs facteurs pouvant potentiellement être impliqués dans la régulation de l’érythropoïèse et plus précisément dans la réponse à l’EPO : tout d’abord, la transferrine ainsi que ses récepteurs (TfR), la transferrine et le TfR1 étant également essentiels à l’érythropoïèse, ainsi qu’un phytoestrogène provenant d’une plante nommée Curcuma comosa, les oestrogènes étant eux aussi connus pour favoriser l’érythropoïèse.Concernant la transferrine, nous avons voulu principalement explorer son rôle sur la signalisation, ayant récemment montré au laboratoire que le TfR1, essentiellement connu pour son rôle dans l’endocytose du fer, est également capable d’entraîner une signalisation.Nous avons montré que la transferrine potentialise la stimulation induite par l’EPO des voies ERK, AKT et STAT5. Cet effet est conservé même en l’absence d’endocytose du TfR1. Aucune coopération n’a été trouvée entre la transferrine et le stem cell factor (SCF).Nous avons également observé qu’en l’absence du TfR2, il existe une augmentation de l’expression de l’EPO-R et de la signalisation induite par l’EPO, sans impact de la transferrine dans ce contexte. Par ailleurs, nous avons montré que le Curcuma comosa améliore la prolifération et la différenciation des progéniteurs érythroïdes précoces, par un mécanisme de potentialisation de la signalisation induite par l’EPO impliquant le récepteur aux oestrogènes ER-α.En conclusion, la transferrine et ses récepteurs, ainsi qu’un phytoestrogène et l’ER-α, sont impliqués dans la régulation de l’érythropoïèse via leur action sur la signalisation induite par l’EPO. L’approfondissement de ces données pourrait ouvrir de nouvelles pistes thérapeutiques dans le traitement de l’anémie. / Erythropoiesis is an extremely proliferative process and must be very closely regulated. Erythropoietin (EPO) is one of the major factors necessary for erythropoiesis. However, in the bone marrow, the amount of circulating EPO is suboptimal and the ability of erythroblasts to survive therefore depends on their sensitivity to EPO. The factors modulating the response to EPO during erythropoiesis are still largely unknown. We therefore wanted to explore several factors that could potentially be involved in the regulation of erythropoiesis and more specifically in the response to EPO: first, transferrin and its receptors (TfR), transferrin and TfR1 being also essential for erythropoiesis, as well as a phytoestrogen from a plant called Curcuma comosa, as estrogens are also known to promote erythropoiesis. Regarding transferrin, we mainly wanted to explore its role on signaling, having recently shown in the laboratory that TfR1, essentially known for its role in iron endocytosis, is a signaling-competent receptor. We have shown that transferrin potentiates EPO-induced stimulation of the ERK, AKT and STAT5 pathways. This effect is maintained even in the absence of TfR1 endocytosis. No cooperation was found between transferrin and stem cell factor (SCF). We also observed that in the absence of TfR2, there is an increase in EPO-R expression and EPO-induced signaling, without any impact of transferrin in this context.In addition, we have shown that Curcuma comosa improves the proliferation and differentiation of early erythroid progenitors through a mechanism involving the ER-α estrogen receptor, able to potentiate EPO-induced signaling. In conclusion, transferrin and its receptors, as well as a phytoestrogen and ER-α, are involved in the regulation of erythropoiesis through their action on EPO-induced signaling. Further investigation of these data could provide new therapeutic strategies in the treatment of anemia.

Aspergillus fumigatus is a ubiquitous fungus associated with several airway complications and diseases including asthma, allergies, cystic fibrosis, and most commonly invasive aspergillosis. The airway epithelium, a protective barrier, is the first anatomical site to interact with A. fumigatus. Although this host-fungal interaction is often asymptomatic for immunocompetent individuals, for immunocompromised persons, due to a weakened competence of the immune system, they have an increased likelihood of fungal infection. This dissertation aims to investigate the effect of A. fumigatus on the transcriptional response of human airway epithelial cells, focusing on the relationship between innate immunity and iron regulation from the host perspective. The trace element iron is needed by both the fungus and the host for cellular maintenance and survival, but tightly controlled iron regulation in the host is required to prevent oxidative stress and cell death. The research methods in this dissertation employ a systems biology approach, by incorporating mathematical modeling, RNA-seq analysis, and experimental biology techniques to assess the role of airway epithelial cells in the host-fungal interaction. Both the quantitative and qualitative research design allows for characterization of airway epithelial cells and the downstream changes in iron importer genes. This study addresses literature gaps through analysis of the host transcriptome using multiple time points, by performing an extensive evaluation of the effect of cytokines on iron importer genes, and conceptualization of a comprehensive mathematical model of the airway epithelial cell. The major findings suggest the following: 1) airway epithelial cells avidly respond to A. fumigatus through modification of the expression of immune response related genes at different infection stages, 2) during A. fumigatus co-incubation with airway epithelial cells, the iron importers genes respond in strikingly different ways, and 3) cytokines have a significant effect on the increase in expression of an iron importer gene. We illuminated the role of airway epithelial cells in fungal recognition and activation of the immune response in signaling cascades that consequently modify iron importer genes and hope to use this information as a platform to discover potential therapeutic targets. / Ph. D.

Background The potential dire consequences of iron deficiency (ID) and iron deficiency anaemia (IDA) on childhood development are of major public health concern. Many factors contribute to anaemia, ID being only one progressive factor. The prevalence of ID and IDA must be accurately determined before iron intervention strategies can be safely prescribed. There is continued uncertainty regarding the optimal approach to identifying and measuring ID, as indicators have different roles, explore different aspects of iron metabolism and cannot be directly compared. Furthermore, inflammation and infection have a confounding effect on the commonly applied indicator and acute phase reactant, serum ferritin (SF). In the public health setting, a suitable method to assess iron status in developing countries has to be inexpensive, standardised, established, easy to measure and its applications specific to identifying ID. Aim We conducted secondary analysis of screening data from three independent iron intervention studies to critically evaluate the indicators used to determine iron status in 6-11-year-old primary school children from three South African provinces. Study design and methods A cross-sectional descriptive analysis was performed on the screening data collected in 2009 and 2010 during iron intervention studies in KwaZulu-Natal (n=736), Northern Cape (n= 1045), and North West (n=546). The three distinct study sites were analysed independently and collectively. Children’s haemoglobin (Hb), SF, transferrin receptor (TfR), zinc protoporphyrin (ZPP), and C-reactive protein (CRP) concentrations were measured and body iron calculated. ID prevalence was compared using different methods (namely the single indicators SF, TfR and ZPP, body iron and the multiple criteria model), and the influence of inflammation on SF was considered. Literature suggests that the multiple criteria model provides a more complete assessment of iron status. The performance of single and body iron indicators were compared to the multiple criteria model (by assessing sensitivity, specificity and predictive values). Results Significant positive correlations between CRP (indicator of inflammation) and SF existed in all study sites and the combined sample (p < 0.01). The mean SF concentration was substantially higher in subjects with inflammation than those without. A different SF cut-off to identify ID was applied to subjects with inflammation. The percentage of ID subjects varied using different indicators (4.2 – 26.5% in KwaZulu-Natal; 4.1 – 13.4% in Northern Cape; 7.0 – 24.4% in North West; and 5.4 – 15.2% in the combined sample). The sensitivity, specificity and predictive values of alternate ID indicators varied within and between study sites, compared to the multiple criteria model. Conclusion Simply using Hb as an ID indicator is inaccurate. The vast differences between percentages identified as ID by different indicators is reason for concern. No consistent agreement appeared between single ID indicators, body iron and the multiple criteria model for ID identification after correcting for inflammation in primary school children. The global view of the multiple criteria model as the gold standard for estimating ID is debatable and potentially impractical at a public health level. Current evidence cautions against overestimating the prevalence of ID, as there is more associated harm than deficiency underestimation. This critical analysis has confirmed a need for research to identify a suitable, accurate and precise alternative to Hb as a tool in the South African public health setting. Furthermore, the impact of inflammation on iron status indicators, in particular SF, should be assessed in context to clearly set parameters for its use in nationally-representative nutrition surveys, the cornerstone of iron intervention strategies. / MSc (Nutrition), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

Background The potential dire consequences of iron deficiency (ID) and iron deficiency anaemia (IDA) on childhood development are of major public health concern. Many factors contribute to anaemia, ID being only one progressive factor. The prevalence of ID and IDA must be accurately determined before iron intervention strategies can be safely prescribed. There is continued uncertainty regarding the optimal approach to identifying and measuring ID, as indicators have different roles, explore different aspects of iron metabolism and cannot be directly compared. Furthermore, inflammation and infection have a confounding effect on the commonly applied indicator and acute phase reactant, serum ferritin (SF). In the public health setting, a suitable method to assess iron status in developing countries has to be inexpensive, standardised, established, easy to measure and its applications specific to identifying ID. Aim We conducted secondary analysis of screening data from three independent iron intervention studies to critically evaluate the indicators used to determine iron status in 6-11-year-old primary school children from three South African provinces. Study design and methods A cross-sectional descriptive analysis was performed on the screening data collected in 2009 and 2010 during iron intervention studies in KwaZulu-Natal (n=736), Northern Cape (n= 1045), and North West (n=546). The three distinct study sites were analysed independently and collectively. Children’s haemoglobin (Hb), SF, transferrin receptor (TfR), zinc protoporphyrin (ZPP), and C-reactive protein (CRP) concentrations were measured and body iron calculated. ID prevalence was compared using different methods (namely the single indicators SF, TfR and ZPP, body iron and the multiple criteria model), and the influence of inflammation on SF was considered. Literature suggests that the multiple criteria model provides a more complete assessment of iron status. The performance of single and body iron indicators were compared to the multiple criteria model (by assessing sensitivity, specificity and predictive values). Results Significant positive correlations between CRP (indicator of inflammation) and SF existed in all study sites and the combined sample (p < 0.01). The mean SF concentration was substantially higher in subjects with inflammation than those without. A different SF cut-off to identify ID was applied to subjects with inflammation. The percentage of ID subjects varied using different indicators (4.2 – 26.5% in KwaZulu-Natal; 4.1 – 13.4% in Northern Cape; 7.0 – 24.4% in North West; and 5.4 – 15.2% in the combined sample). The sensitivity, specificity and predictive values of alternate ID indicators varied within and between study sites, compared to the multiple criteria model. Conclusion Simply using Hb as an ID indicator is inaccurate. The vast differences between percentages identified as ID by different indicators is reason for concern. No consistent agreement appeared between single ID indicators, body iron and the multiple criteria model for ID identification after correcting for inflammation in primary school children. The global view of the multiple criteria model as the gold standard for estimating ID is debatable and potentially impractical at a public health level. Current evidence cautions against overestimating the prevalence of ID, as there is more associated harm than deficiency underestimation. This critical analysis has confirmed a need for research to identify a suitable, accurate and precise alternative to Hb as a tool in the South African public health setting. Furthermore, the impact of inflammation on iron status indicators, in particular SF, should be assessed in context to clearly set parameters for its use in nationally-representative nutrition surveys, the cornerstone of iron intervention strategies. / MSc (Nutrition), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

As síndromes talassêmicas (?- e ?-talassemia) são as desordens mais comuns e frequentes associadas com eritropoese ineficaz. O desbalanço na produção das cadeias ?- e ?-globinas resulta no comprometimento da produção de eritrócitos, em anemia e aumento de progenitores eritroides no sangue periférico. Enquanto os pacientes homozigóticos afetados por essas desordens demonstram alterações características dos parâmetros relacionados a eritropoese, a relação entre grau de anemia, eritropoese alterada e disfunção do metabolismo de ferro ainda não foram investigados nos indivíduos com ?+-talassemia heterozigótica ou ?+-talassêmia. Duzentos e vinte seis indivíduos (75 do gênero feminino e 151 do gênero masculino) foram recrutados e divididos em 5 grupos: Controle (n=28), doadores de sangue regulares (DSR, n=23), ?+-talassemia heterozigótica (TAT, n=14), ?+-thalassemia (traço ?-talassêmico, TBT, n=20) e ?0-talassemia, (?-talassemia maior, BTM, n=27). As amostras foram analisadas para parâmetros hematológicos (Micros ABX 60); ferro sérico, capacidade total de ligação ao ferro e saturação de transferrina por método colorimétrico (Pointe Scientific, Inc., Canton, MI, USA), ferritina e proteína C-reativa ultra sensível por imunoensaio (Immulite 1000); receptor solúvel de transferrina, eritropoetina, fator de diferenciação do crescimento 15 (R&D Systems) e hepcidina (Intrinsic LifeSciences, La Jolla, CA) por ELISA. As razões sTfR/log ferritina e (hepcidina/ferritina)/sTfR foram calculadas para avaliar o metabolismo do ferro. sTfR/log ferritina pode distinguir depleção dos estoques de ferro de eritropoese deficiente de ferro, enquanto (hepcidina/ferritina)/sTfR pode avaliar os estímulos contrários (disponibilidade de ferro e atividade eritropoética) que controlam a síntese de hepcidina e a absorção de ferro, na ausência de estímulos inflamatórios. Foi demonstrado que TAT teve significativa redução da hepcidina e aumento do receptor solúvel de transferrina, com parâmetros hematológicos relativamente normais. Em contraste, todos os parâmetros hematológicos de TBT foram significativamente diferentes do Controle, incluindo aumento dos níveis do receptor solúvel de transferrina, ferritina, eritropoetina e fator de diferenciação do crescimento 15. Essas alterações em ambos os grupos sugerem um balanço alterado entre eritropoese e metabolismo de ferro. Os índices sTfR/log ferritina e (hepcidina/ferritina)/sTfR estão, respectivamente, aumentado e reduzido comparados ao Controle, proporcional a severidade de cada grupo talassêmico. Em conclusão, destacamos que, pela primeira vez, foram descritas alterações no metabolismo de ferro em indivíduos com ?+-talassemia heterozigótica. Esses dados demonstram que, no contexto da saúde pública, são necessários identificação e acompanhamento dos portadores de ?+-talassemia. / The thalassemia syndromes (?- and ?-thalassemia) are the most common and frequent disorders associated with ineffective erythropoiesis. Imbalance of ?- or ?-globin chain production results in impaired red blood cell synthesis, anemia and more erythroid progenitors in the blood stream. While patients affected by these disorders show definitive altered parameters related to erythropoiesis, the relationship between the degree of anemia, altered erythropoiesis and dysfunctional iron metabolism have not been investigated in both carriers of ?-thalassemia and ?-thalassemia. 226 subjects (75 females and 151 males) were recruited to this study and divided in 5 groups: Control (n=28), repeat blood donors (DSR, n=23), ?+-thalassemia heterozygous carriers (TAT, n=14), ?+-thalassemia (?-thalassemia trait, TBT, n=20) and ?0-thalassemia, (?-thalassemia major, BTM, n=27). Samples were tested for hematological parameters (Micros ABX 60); serum iron, total iron binding capacity, and transferrin saturation by the colorimetric method (Pointe Scientific, Inc., Canton, MI, USA), ferritin and high sensitive C-reactive protein by immunoassay (Immulite 1000); soluble transferrin receptor, erythropoietin and growth differentiation factor 15 (R&D Systems) and hepcidin (Intrinsic LifeSciences, La Jolla, CA) by ELISA. Were calculated the ratios sTfR/log ferritin and (hepcidin/ferritin)/sTfR to evaluate iron metabolism. sTfR/log ferritin can distinguish storage iron depletion from iron-deficient erythropoiesis, while (hepcidin/ferritin)/sTfR can be utilized to explore and quantify the opposing forces (i.e. iron availability and erythropoietic activity) regulating hepcidin synthesis and iron absorption in absence of inflammatory stimuli. We demonstrate that TAT have a significantly reduced hepcidin and increased soluble transferrin receptor levels but relatively normal hematological findings. In contrast, TBT have all hematological parameters significantly different from controls, including increased soluble transferrin receptor, ferritin, erythropoietin and growth differentiation factor 15 levels. These changings in both groups suggest an altered balance between erythropoiesis and iron metabolism. The indexes sTfR/log ferritin and (hepcidin/ferritin)/sTfR are respectively increased and reduced relative to controls, proportional to the severity of each thalassemia group. In conclusion, we emphasize that, for the first time in the literature, subjects with heterozygous ?+-thalassemia have altered iron metabolism. Our data demonstrate that within the context of public health, identification and monitoring of patients with ?+-thalassemia are needed.

L’érythropoïèse est le processus de formation des globules rouges. L’anémie demeure à l’heure actuelle un problème de santé publique majeur. Par conséquent, une meilleure compréhension des mécanismes impliqués dans le contrôle de ce processus dans des conditions physiologiques et pathologiques, ainsi que l’établissement de stratégies thérapeutiques ciblées constituent un enjeu de recherche majeur. Le récepteur de la transferrine 1 (CD71/RTf1) est un élément essentiel de l'érythropoïèse, la majorité des travaux de recherche étant focalisés sur son rôle indéniable dans le métabolisme du fer. Cependant, de nouveaux ligands du RTf1 ont été découverts ouvrant de nouvelles perspectives relatives aux fonctionnalités de ce récepteur. Ayant démontré que le RTf1 fixait les immunoglobulines A1 (IgA1), nous nous sommes intéressés au rôle des IgA1 dans l’érythropoïèse. Nous montrons que le RTf1 lié aux polymères d'IgA1 (pIgA1) induit la croissance et une augmentation de la prolifération des érythroblastes en concentration sous-optimale d'érythropoïétine (Epo). De même, l'expression transgénique d’IgA1 humaine (souris alpha1-KI), ou le traitement de souris de type sauvage avec les pIgA1 permettent une récupération accélérée de l’anémie aiguë. L’engagement du RTf1 module la sensibilité à l'Epo, en diminuant le seuil d'activation cellulaire, et en induisant les voies de signalisation MAPK/ERK et phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3K/AKT). Ces données mettent en évidence un nouveau rôle du RTf1 en tant que régulateur positif de l'érythropoïèse. Parallèlement au RTf1, nous avons identifié un autre récepteur pouvant constituer une cible thérapeutique pour corriger une érythropoïèse inefficace : le récepteur de l’activine de type IIA (ActRIIA). Dans un modèle murin de Beta-thalassémie intermédiaire (Hbbth1/th1), résultant d'une déficience génétique de la chaîne Beta de la globine, nous montrons que l'administration d'une protéine de fusion constituée du domaine extracellulaire de l’ActRIIA lié à un fragment Fc d’IgG de souris (RAP-011), corrige l'anémie, augmente le taux d'hémoglobine et diminue la splénomégalie. Ce traitement favorise l’érythropoïèse splénique et diminue la saturation de la transferrine et l’hémolyse. Fait intéressant, des niveaux élevés de GDF11 (Growth Differentiation Factor 11) sont observés sur des coupes spléniques de souris thalassémiques ainsi que dans le sérum de patients thalassémiques. In vivo, l’inhibition de l’interaction GDF11/ActRIIa par le RAP-011 favorise l’apoptose des érythroblastes précoces par la voie Fas/FasLigand. Ces résultats suggèrent que l’activation constitutive des signaux GDF11/ActRIIA contribue à l’établissement d’une érythropoïèse inefficace caractéristique de la Beta-thalassémie. La neutralisation de cette signalisation inverse ce processus. En conclusion, nos travaux ouvrent de nouvelles perspectives dans la compréhension de l'hématopoïèse normale et pathologique, et pourraient conduire à envisager des traitements innovants pour l'anémie. / Anemia produced by a variety of underlying causes is the most common disorder of the blood, and remains a major global public health problem associated with a poor quality of life for many patients. Thus, better understanding the erythroid process in physiological and pathological conditions, and developing new strategies to boost erythropoiesis appear of great interest. Transferrin receptor 1 (CD71/TfR1) plays an essential role in erythropoiesis, and investigations of TfR1 functions have been focused on their undeniable role in iron metabolism. However, recent data demonstrate that TfR1 is a multi-ligand receptor that participates in a wide array of cellular functions. We have identified TfR1 as a receptor for A1 isotype immunoglobulins (IgA1). In this work, we show that pIgA1s are able through their interaction with the TfR1, to stimulate erythropoiesis by sensitizing erythroblasts to Epo. Likewise, transgenic expression of human IgA1 (Alpha1-KI mice) or treatment of wild-type mice with pIgA1 accelerated recovery from acute anemia. TfR1 engagement by pIgA1 increased cell sensitivity to Epo by inducing activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) signaling pathways. These findings unveiled a new role of TfR1 as a signaling competent molecule positively regulating erythropoiesis. In addition to TfR1, our work identifies another receptor as a putative target for correcting ineffective erythropoiesis: the activin receptor IIA (ActRIIA). Indeed, using a mouse model of Beta-thalassemia intermedia (Hbbth1/th1) resulting from a genetic deficiency of Beta-globin chain, we show that administration of a ligand trap (named RAP-011), consisting in a fusion protein between the extracellular domain of ActRIIA and the Fc fragment of a mouse IgG, improves anemia, increases total hemoglobin levels and decreases splenomegaly. In addition, targeting ActRIIa signaling corrects ineffective erythropoiesis in the spleen, reduces hemolysis and transferrin saturation. Interestingly, high levels of Growth Differentiation Factor 11 (GDF11) are detected in spleen sections from Beta-thalassemic mice, as well as in sera from thalassemic patients. In addition, the inactivation of GDF11 promotes terminal erythroblast differentiation. Finally, blockade of the GDF11/ActRIIa signaling, promotes premature apoptosis of early erythroblasts through induction of Fas/FasLigand pathway. Therefore, these results first suggest that constitutive GDF11/ActRIIa signaling pathway may promote ineffective erythropoiesis in Beta-thalassemia intermedia, and secondly, support the use of ActRIIa traps for the treatment of chronic anemia and ineffective erythropoiesis. Altogether, these results open new perspectives in the understanding of normal and pathological hematopoiesis and lead to propose innovative treatments for anemia.

As síndromes talassêmicas (?- e ?-talassemia) são as desordens mais comuns e frequentes associadas com eritropoese ineficaz. O desbalanço na produção das cadeias ?- e ?-globinas resulta no comprometimento da produção de eritrócitos, em anemia e aumento de progenitores eritroides no sangue periférico. Enquanto os pacientes homozigóticos afetados por essas desordens demonstram alterações características dos parâmetros relacionados a eritropoese, a relação entre grau de anemia, eritropoese alterada e disfunção do metabolismo de ferro ainda não foram investigados nos indivíduos com ?+-talassemia heterozigótica ou ?+-talassêmia. Duzentos e vinte seis indivíduos (75 do gênero feminino e 151 do gênero masculino) foram recrutados e divididos em 5 grupos: Controle (n=28), doadores de sangue regulares (DSR, n=23), ?+-talassemia heterozigótica (TAT, n=14), ?+-thalassemia (traço ?-talassêmico, TBT, n=20) e ?0-talassemia, (?-talassemia maior, BTM, n=27). As amostras foram analisadas para parâmetros hematológicos (Micros ABX 60); ferro sérico, capacidade total de ligação ao ferro e saturação de transferrina por método colorimétrico (Pointe Scientific, Inc., Canton, MI, USA), ferritina e proteína C-reativa ultra sensível por imunoensaio (Immulite 1000); receptor solúvel de transferrina, eritropoetina, fator de diferenciação do crescimento 15 (R&D Systems) e hepcidina (Intrinsic LifeSciences, La Jolla, CA) por ELISA. As razões sTfR/log ferritina e (hepcidina/ferritina)/sTfR foram calculadas para avaliar o metabolismo do ferro. sTfR/log ferritina pode distinguir depleção dos estoques de ferro de eritropoese deficiente de ferro, enquanto (hepcidina/ferritina)/sTfR pode avaliar os estímulos contrários (disponibilidade de ferro e atividade eritropoética) que controlam a síntese de hepcidina e a absorção de ferro, na ausência de estímulos inflamatórios. Foi demonstrado que TAT teve significativa redução da hepcidina e aumento do receptor solúvel de transferrina, com parâmetros hematológicos relativamente normais. Em contraste, todos os parâmetros hematológicos de TBT foram significativamente diferentes do Controle, incluindo aumento dos níveis do receptor solúvel de transferrina, ferritina, eritropoetina e fator de diferenciação do crescimento 15. Essas alterações em ambos os grupos sugerem um balanço alterado entre eritropoese e metabolismo de ferro. Os índices sTfR/log ferritina e (hepcidina/ferritina)/sTfR estão, respectivamente, aumentado e reduzido comparados ao Controle, proporcional a severidade de cada grupo talassêmico. Em conclusão, destacamos que, pela primeira vez, foram descritas alterações no metabolismo de ferro em indivíduos com ?+-talassemia heterozigótica. Esses dados demonstram que, no contexto da saúde pública, são necessários identificação e acompanhamento dos portadores de ?+-talassemia. / The thalassemia syndromes (?- and ?-thalassemia) are the most common and frequent disorders associated with ineffective erythropoiesis. Imbalance of ?- or ?-globin chain production results in impaired red blood cell synthesis, anemia and more erythroid progenitors in the blood stream. While patients affected by these disorders show definitive altered parameters related to erythropoiesis, the relationship between the degree of anemia, altered erythropoiesis and dysfunctional iron metabolism have not been investigated in both carriers of ?-thalassemia and ?-thalassemia. 226 subjects (75 females and 151 males) were recruited to this study and divided in 5 groups: Control (n=28), repeat blood donors (DSR, n=23), ?+-thalassemia heterozygous carriers (TAT, n=14), ?+-thalassemia (?-thalassemia trait, TBT, n=20) and ?0-thalassemia, (?-thalassemia major, BTM, n=27). Samples were tested for hematological parameters (Micros ABX 60); serum iron, total iron binding capacity, and transferrin saturation by the colorimetric method (Pointe Scientific, Inc., Canton, MI, USA), ferritin and high sensitive C-reactive protein by immunoassay (Immulite 1000); soluble transferrin receptor, erythropoietin and growth differentiation factor 15 (R&D Systems) and hepcidin (Intrinsic LifeSciences, La Jolla, CA) by ELISA. Were calculated the ratios sTfR/log ferritin and (hepcidin/ferritin)/sTfR to evaluate iron metabolism. sTfR/log ferritin can distinguish storage iron depletion from iron-deficient erythropoiesis, while (hepcidin/ferritin)/sTfR can be utilized to explore and quantify the opposing forces (i.e. iron availability and erythropoietic activity) regulating hepcidin synthesis and iron absorption in absence of inflammatory stimuli. We demonstrate that TAT have a significantly reduced hepcidin and increased soluble transferrin receptor levels but relatively normal hematological findings. In contrast, TBT have all hematological parameters significantly different from controls, including increased soluble transferrin receptor, ferritin, erythropoietin and growth differentiation factor 15 levels. These changings in both groups suggest an altered balance between erythropoiesis and iron metabolism. The indexes sTfR/log ferritin and (hepcidin/ferritin)/sTfR are respectively increased and reduced relative to controls, proportional to the severity of each thalassemia group. In conclusion, we emphasize that, for the first time in the literature, subjects with heterozygous ?+-thalassemia have altered iron metabolism. Our data demonstrate that within the context of public health, identification and monitoring of patients with ?+-thalassemia are needed.

L’endocytose dépendante de la clathrine (EDC) est un processus fondamental des cellules eucaryotes. Elle se caractérise par la formation d’invaginations à la membrane plasmique aboutissant à la création de petites vésicules par l’action de la dynamine. Dans le cerveau, elle est impliquée dans la dépression synaptique à long terme, un corrélat cellulaire de la mémoire. La morphologie complexe des neurones et le contrôle précis du code neuronal suggèrent qu’elle puisse être régulée spatialement et temporellement dans ces cellules. Le but de mon travail a été de développer de nouveaux outils pour visualiser et perturber l’EDC afin d’étudier ce type de régulation. Le premier de ces outils est pHuji, un senseur de pH rouge génétiquement encodable. Je l’ai utilisé avec un senseur de pH vert existant pour montrer que dans les cellules NIH- 3T3, le récepteur β2-adrénergique est internalisé dans une sous-population de vésicules contenant le récepteur à la transferrine constitutivement endocyté. Le deuxième est une nouvelle méthode d’imagerie permettant de visualiser l’activité d’endocytose de structures recouvertes de clathrine optiquement stables dans des neurones d’hippocampe. J’ai ainsi pu suivre pour la première fois la cinétique d’internalisation de récepteurs au glutamate de type AMPA dans des conditions de plasticité. Enfin, j'ai élaboré un test combinant imagerie et patch-clamp afin de développer un bloqueur peptidique spécifique de l'EDC. En utilisant des peptides dimériques, j’ai montré que la dynamine se lie à ses partenaires via des interactions multimériques. En conclusion, ce travail propose une boite à outils permettant d’élucider les mécanismes de l’EDC avec une grande résolution spatiale et temporelle. / Clathrin mediated endocytosis (CME) is a fundamental process of all eukaryotic cells. At the level of the plasma membrane, it is characterized by the formation of deep invaginations resulting in the creation of small vesicles after membrane scission by dynamin. In the central nervous system, it is involved in the expression of synaptic long term depression, a proposed cellular correlate of learning and memory. The complex morphology of neurons and the precise timing of neuronal firing suggest that endocytosis may be spatially and temporally regulated in those cells. The aim of the work presented here was to develop new tools to visualize and perturb CME in order to study such regulation. The first tool to be characterized was pHuji, a genetically encoded red pH-sensor. I used it in combination with an existing green pHsensor to demonstrate that in NIH-3T3 cells, the β2-adrenergic receptor was internalized in a subset of vesicles containing the constitutively endocytosed transferrin receptor. The second tool is a new imaging method that allowed me to monitor the endocytic activity of optically stable clathrin coated structures in hippocampal neurons. I was thus able to visualize for the first time the kinetics of internalization of AMPA-type glutamate receptors under plasticity inducing conditions. Finally, I set up an assay combining imaging and cell dialysis in order to develop a specific peptide-based inhibitor of CME. Using dimeric peptides, I found that the interplay between dynamin and its binding partners relies on multimeric interactions. Altogether, this work provides a toolbox to decipher the mechanisms of vesicle formation with high spatial and temporal resolution.

Machupovirus är ett virus som kan orsaka hemorragisk feber hos människor. Efter utvärdering av bindning mellan designade proteiner och virala glykoproteiner skulle proteinerna potentiellt kunna användas vid framtagning av ett proteinbasserat läkemedel mot hemorragisk feber. Syftet med studien var att efter riktad evolution och framrening av optimerade varianter av proteinet AP01 undersöka inbindningen till virala glykoproteiner mellan designade AP01 proteiner och transferrinreceptorn med hjälp av flödescytometrisk undersökning. Den fysiologiska nivån av järn i kroppen upprätthålls av transferrin (Tf) och transferrinreceptorn (TfR), ett transmembranprotein bestående av tre domäner. TfR apikala domän används av glykoprotein 1 (MGP1) och Plasmodium vivax för att ta sig in i celler genom receptormedierad endocytos. Med rekombinant genteknik kan rekombinanta plasmider skapas där en gen av intresse ligeras in i en plasmid med hjälp av DNA-ligas. I studien skapades rekombinanta plasmider pET29b+/AP01 S2.1, S2.2, S2.3, S3.3, S3.4 och S3.6 som transformerades till E. coli. Erhållna resultat från sekvensering visade att samtliga sex AP01-gener hade ligerats i vektorn men sekvensering av rekombinanta plasmider visade att endast pET29b+/AP01 S2.1, S2.2, S2.3 och S3.6 hade nukleotidsekvens utan mutationer. Proteinuttryck inducerades innan proteiner renades fram med immobilized metal ion affinity chromatography (IMAC). Den uppskattade molekylvikten hos de framrenade proteinerna var 18 kDa som bestämdes med sodium dodecyl sulfate – polyacrylamid gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) vilket överrenstämde med den teoretiska molekylvikten. Flödescytometri användes för att undersöka inbindningsförmågan mellan de uttryckta proteinerna och glykoprotein 1 (MGP1). Interaktionsbindningen mellan de designade proteinerna och MGP1 är bättre än interaktionen mellan originalgen AP01 och MGP1. De designade proteinerna visar på en svag effekt i den utförda ”competition assay” som gjorts vilket kan förklaras med en ej optimal struktur hos de designade proteinerna eller närvaro av BSA. / Machupovirus is a virus that can cause hemorragic fever in humans. After evaluating the binding between designed proteins and viral glycoproteins, the proteins could potentially be used in the development of a protein-based drug for hemorrhagic fever. The aim of the study was to investigate the binding to viral glycoproteins between designed AP01 proteins and the transferrin receptor after directed evolution and purification of optimized variants of the AP01 protein by means of flow cytometric examination. The physiological level of iron in the body is maintained by transferrin (Tf) and the transferrin receptor (TfR), a transmembrane protein consisting of three domains. The apical domain of TfR is used by glycoprotein 1 (MGP1) and Plasmodium vivax to enter cells through receptor mediated endocytosis. With recombinant DNA technology, recombinant plasmids can be created where a gene of interest is ligated into a plasmid using DNA ligase. In this study, recombinant plasmids pET29b+/AP01 S2.1, S2.2, S2.3, S3.3, S3.4 and S3.6 were created and transformed into E. coli. Sequencing results showed that all six AP01 genes had been ligated into the vector but sequencing of recombinant plasmids showed that only endast pET29b+/AP01 S2.1, S2.2, S2.3 and S3.6 had nucleotid sequence without mutations. Protein expression was induced before proteins were purified by immobilized metal ion affinity chromatography (IMAC). The estimated molecular weight of the purified proteins was 18 kDa as determined by sodium dodecyl sulfate – polyacrylamid gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) which was consistent with the theoretical molecular weight. Flow cytometry was used to examine the binding ability between the expressed proteins and glycoprotein 1 (MGP1). The interaction binding between the designed proteins and MGP1 is better than the interaction between the original gene AP01 and MGP1. The designed proteins show a weak effect in the “competition assay” preformed, wich can be explained by a non-optimal structure how the designed proteins or the presence of BSA.

Le trafic membranaire est essentiel dans les neurones pour la morphogénèse, le recyclage des vésicules synaptiques et des récepteurs. L’exocytose des récepteurs AMPA contenus dans les endosomes de recyclage (ER) est nécessaire pour l’expression de la plasticité synaptique à long terme (PLT). Pour étudier ce mécanisme, nous avons visualisé l’exocytose par microscopie de fluorescence sur des neurones en culture transfectés avec le récepteur de la transferrine (TfR), un marqueur des ER, fusionné à la phluorine. Un examen systématique des événements d'exocytose a révélé des différences de comportement. Dans la plupart des cas, les récepteurs diffusent rapidement dans la membrane plasmique après exocytose (discharge), mais dans environ 25% des cas, les récepteurs restent concentrés (display). L’utilisation de changements rapides de pH extracellulaire autour de la cellule montre que l’exocytose est transitoire : après quelques secondes (médiane 2.6s) les récepteurs sont réinternalisés. Ce mécanisme a pu être étendu aux récepteurs AMPA et β2-adrenergique, pour lesquels l’exocytose de type display avait déjà été décrite. L’imagerie deux couleurs montre que Rab11, un marqueur des ER, est enrichie au site d’exocytose. L’expression d’un dominant négatif de Rab11 connu pour inhiber la PLT provoque une diminution spécifique de la fréquence des évènements discharge. Dans nos recherches sur le mécanisme de l’exocytose, nous avons testé l’implication des protéines SNARE dans la fusion membranaire. Ainsi VAMP4 est enrichie avec le TfR dans les ER qui sont exocytés à une fréquence équivalente. De plus, elle est requise pour le recyclage du TfR. / Membrane trafficking is essential for neuronal function: from growth of neurons and synapse formation to recycling of synaptic vesicles and receptors, questions concerning exocytosis and endocytosis are stimulating neurobiology research. In particular, trafficking of glutamate receptors present in recycling endosomes (REs) is necessary for the expression of long term potentiation (LTP). To investigate the mechanism of exocytosis in dendrites, we have imaged cultured rat hippocampal neurons transfected with transferrin receptor, a classical marker of REs, tagged with phluorin. As for AMPA receptors or β2-adrenegric receptors, single exocytic events has revealed two main behaviors: in most cases, receptors diffuse quickly in the plasma membrane after exocytosis (discharge events), but receptors can also remain clustered (display events). Using fast extracellular pH changes around the recorded cell, we show that for display events exocytosis is transient: after a few seconds (median 2.6 s) receptors are internalized. Moreover, using two color imaging of single exocytosis events with markers of neuronal compartments, we found that Rab11 is enriched at the exocytosis site, confirming the endosomal origin of the vesicles. Overexpression of a dominant negative form of Rab11 known to impair LTP decreases selectively the frequency of discharge events. As SNARE proteins are involved in virtually all membrane fusion processes, we investigated the role of Vamp proteins in somatodendritic exocytosis events. We found that Vamp4, unlike Vamp2 or Vamp7, is enriched in TfR containing compartments and can undergo exocytosis at high frequency and is required for TfR exocytosis.