Transformadores de potência representam um grande volume de investimento em sistemas de transmissão e distribuição. Falhas em transformadores têm um alto impacto econômico na exploração de uma rede. O parâmetro mais importante e que define a vida útil de isolação de um transformador é a temperatura do ponto mais quente de seus enrolamentos. O trabalho analisa dois modelos térmicos de transformadores de potência. Eles nos permitem calcular as temperaturas do óleo no topo e na parte inferior e a temperatura do ponto quente no enrolamento. Ambos os modelos são baseados em circuitos elétricos a parâmetros concentrados. O primeiro é uma proposta de Susa, que envolve a solução de dois circuitos elétricos acoplados. Já Tang sugere um segundo modelo, que consiste em um circuito elétrico de três nós. O principal objetivo deste trabalho é a obtenção dos parâmetros térmicos de ambos os modelos baseados em temperaturas medidas para uma determinada carga. Duas abordagens diferentes de otimização serão avaliadas: uma mono objetivo e outra multi objetivo. A segunda oferece-nos uma análise de sensibilidade de parâmetros do modelo. Ambos os métodos de otimização foram utilizadas para obter os parâmetros térmicos de um transformador de potência 250 MVA resfriamento ONAN (Óleo Natural, Ar Natural). Os parâmetros obtidos do modelo térmico são então utilizadas para outras curvas de carga e também são comparadas com a norma IEEE C57.91 1995 com boa precisão. / Power transformers represent a large amount of investment in transmission and distribution systems. Faults in transformers have a high economic impact in the operation of a network. One of the most important parameters that govern the life of transformers is its hotspot temperature, which defines the loss of life of the equipament. The work analyzes two thermal models for a power transformer. They allow us to calculate the top oil temperature, the bottom oil temperature and the hotspot temperature of power transformers. Both models are based on lumped parameters. The first one is proposed by Susa, and involves the solution of two coupled electrical circuits. Tang suggests the second one, which consists on an electric circuit of three nodes to be solved. The main objective of this work is to obtain the thermal lumped parameters of both models based on measured temperatures for a given load curve. Two different approaches will be adopted: a mono-objective optimization and a multiobjective optimization. The second one provides us a sensitivity analysis of the model parameters. Both optimization methods were used to obtain the thermal lumped parameters in a 250 MVA ONAN power transformer. The obtained parameters of the thermal model are then used for other load curves and compared with the guide IEEE C57.91 1995 with good accuracy.

O objetivo deste trabalho de pesquisa foi de fazer a modelagem por meio de sistemas de inferência Fuzzy da análise da concentração dos gases dissolvidos no óleo mineral isolante e desta forma diagnosticar defeitos elétricos internos em transformadores de Potência. Assim sendo o sistema proposto deve fornecer respostas que auxiliem no diagnóstico de falhas e avarias nos interiores dos transformadores e no processo de tomada de decisões no acompanhamento da evolução destas falhas de forma a aumentar a confiabilidade em relação à utilização dos métodos individualmente. O sistema desenvolvido baseou-se na pesquisa acadêmica de normas e técnicas mais utilizadas na literatura que relacionam o gás dissolvido no óleo mineral isolante com a falha. O sistema proposto foi validado por meio de dados reais de dois transformadores pilotos e vários sistemas Fuzzy foram construídos, cada um especialista em um determinado método. Os resultados encontrados mostraram-se compatíveis com aqueles obtidos pelos métodos convencionais comprovando que a ferramenta pode ser utilizada como suporte para uma análise rápida e confiável do estado do óleo isolante dos transformadores. / The objective of this research was to model by analyzing the fuzzy inference systems the concentration of gases dissolved in the insulating oil and diagnosing thereby internal defects in electrical power transformers. Therefore the proposed system should provide answers that help in the diagnosis of faults and malfunctions in the interiors of the transformers and in the decision-making process in monitoring the evolution of these failures in order to increase the reliability regarding the use of the methods individually. The system developed was based on academic research standards and techniques commonly used in the literature relating the gas dissolved in the insulating oil with failure. The proposed system was validated by real data of two pilots transformers and various Fuzzy systems were built, each an expert in a particular method. The results were compatible with those obtained by conventional methods proving that the tool can be used as support for quick and reliable analysis of the insulating oil condition of transformers.

Com o crescimento constante da infraestrutura do sistema de distribuição de baixa tensão, tem-se a necessidade de um monitoramento mais preciso das grandezas elétricas no ponto de conexão com os clientes. O impacto da implantação de sistemas smart grids são positivos, visto que para o lado do consumidor o acompanhamento do consumo de forma online permite realizar um melhor planejamento, e para o lado da concessionária, o levantamento de perfil dos clientes e planejamento de demanda, visto que os medidores podem fornecer os dados em tempo real de horários de maior consumo e acompanhamento dos níveis, de forma a adequar conforme os níveis de qualidade de energia definidos pelo módulo 8 PRODIST. Além do acompanhamento, das variáveis e limites, este projeto poderá atuar de forma a auxiliar as companhias elétricas a comparar os pontos de cargas estimadas com o fornecimento para detectar possíveis fraudes no ponto de distribuição. Outro aspecto importante é tornar possível a integração com uma rede de clientes que além de consumidores podem tornar-se pequenas unidades geradoras, alimentando o sistema maior. / With the constant growth of the infrastructure of the low voltage distribution system, there is a need for a more refined monitoring of the electrical quantities in the distribution network. The impact of the implementation of smart grids systems are positive, since for the consumer side the monitoring of consumption in an online way allows to carry out consumption planning, and for the side of the concessionaire, customer profile survey and demand planning, Since the meters can provide the real time data of schedules of greater consumption and monitoring of the levels, in order to adapt according to the levels of quality of energy defined by the module 8 PRODIST. In addition to the monitoring of variables and limits, this project may act in a way that helps utilities compare the estimated load points with the supply to detect possible fraud at the distribution point. Another important aspect is to make it possible to integrate with a network of customers that in addition to consumers can become small generating units, feeding the larger system.

Development and research activities about electric motors require realistic feedback about the motor performance and efficiency. This feedback can be supplied by the help of the motor test systems without waiting for the end-user. Throughout this study, a computer based motor test system with four quadrant loading capability is developed. The system is capable of entering user-defined test conditions, performing tests, acquisition of test data and displaying test results. The system has a visual user interface that can handle all tasks from a single computer.

In this thesis various reduced common mode voltage (RCMV) pulse width modulation (PWM) techniques and active/passive common mode voltage (CMV) reduction methods for voltage source inverter driven three-phase AC motors are theoretically and practically investigated. A novel RCMV-PWM method, the near state PWM (NSPWM) method is proposed for operation at high modulation index. At low modulation index, a modified version of an existing RCMV-PWM method, AZSPWM1, termed as MAZSPWM, is proposed to mitigate the voltage reflection problem of the method. An optimum modulation algorithm combining NSPWM and MAZSPWM with seamless transition is proposed. The proposed RCMV-PWM methods significantly reduce CMV but they suppress common mode current (CMC) partially. Utilization of a common mode inductor together with RCMV-PWM methods is effective in suppressing the CMC. In the study, in addition to the CMV characteristics, various practical performance characteristics such as voltage linearity, inverter output current ripple, inverter DC-link current ripple, and output line-to-line voltage pulse pattern are also analyzed. The study involves analysis, computer simulations, and detailed laboratory experiments.

Transformable products (or transformers), those with two or more functional states, are increasingly utilized by our society. As the mobility and complexity of life increases, so must the adaptability of the products which we use. We need new design techniques to develop more adaptable devices, such as transformers. The purpose of this study is to propose a response to the question “When is it preferable to implement a design approach focused on developing transformable products over an approach focused on developing primary function, non transforming products?” Our response to this question comes in the form of a method. The method helps a designer or design team consider the benefits of developing a transformer at an early stage in the design process. Research includes a deductive and an inductive study which are used to identify transformation indicators or context properties and usage factors that identify when it is preferable to build a transformable device. Static function-state indicators are also presented. These are contrary to transformation indicators in that they identify contexts suitable for developing non-transforming devices. Our technique seeks to improve the outcome of a design project by encouraging the consideration of transformable solutions and aiding in the selection of an appropriate design process. This method for testing the presence of these indicators in exemplary design contexts is presented. One such application is the design of an autonomous bridge-health monitoring system. / text

In order to sustain transmission grid availability and reliability it is imperative that the condition of vital and costly high voltage equipment is ascertained on a continuous or regular basis. It is necessary to establish the effective diagnostic tools or surveillance devices that can be used to assess equipment condition. Emphasis has been placed on refining well-established and more novel but developing condition assessment techniques. It is important to note that condition assessment of equipment also allows the opportunity to predict failure. Based on a complete and systematic assessment, the failure of defective equipment may be evident or predicted in time, thus preventing a forced outage and loss of valuable 'system minutes'. It has also become necessary to extend the life of existing equipment since most of them are reaching the end of their useful life. Replacement strategies have proven to be ineffective due to financial and resource constraints experienced by utilities. Life extension is the work required to keep equipment operating economically beyond its anticipated life, with optimum availability, efficiency and safety. One of its principal components is condition assessment, with the possibility of predicting remnant life. As a result, refurbishment projects are then raised. Refurbishment by replacement, uprating, modifications or change of design of certain key components to extend the life usually requires a substantial amount of capital to be invested. These projects must be economically justified. This thesis focuses on establishing condition assessment techniques for major power equipment such as power transformers. Assessment techniques for instrument transformers and circuit breakers are included, since these are commonly replaced or modified under refurbishment projects. An experimental investigation was carried out to determine the effectiveness of integrating data of two diagnostic techniques i.e. dissolved gas analysis (on-line) and acoustic detection of partial discharges. It was found that there is a correlation between data obtained from an acoustic detection system and an on-line single gas (Hydrogen) analyser. By integrating the data of both on-line monitoring systems, the diagnostic process is further enhanced. In addition, the location of a fixed discharge source was verified by using an acoustic detection system. Further, the sensitivity of the acoustic technique to partial discharge inception voltage, relative to the established electrical detection technique was determined for the experimental arrangement used. The results obtained indicated that this is an effective technique for the evaluation of activity within a transformer structure. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2004.

Focus of this work is closed-loop speed control of an induction machine based on direct field-oriented control (DFOC) algorithm, using estimates of speed and flux observers which utilize only stator current and voltage. Theoretical bases of the algorithms are explained in detail and their performances are investigated with simulations and experiments. Field Orientated Control is based on projections which transform a threephase time and speed dependent system into a two co-ordinate time invariant system. These projections lead to a structure similar to that of a DC machine control. Transformations are done in synchronous frame alligned to d-axis of rotor flux. So rotor flux position must be known accurately to make these transformations. Degined flux observer, in which voltage model is assisted by current model via a closed-loop to compensate voltage model&rsquo / s disadvantages, estimates the position of the rotor flux. Obtaining adequate torque control via FOC, speed loop is closed using conventional PI regulators. Speed feedback is necessary to complete control loop. Model Reference Adaptive System is studied as a speed estimator. Reactive power scheme is applied to MRAS algorithm to estimate rotor speed. In this study, the direct (rotor) flux oriented control system with flux and speed estimators is described and tested in real-time with the starter kit named TMS320F2812 eZdsp DSK and the Embedded Target for the TI C2000 DSP tool of Matlab

[pt] O dimensionamento de equipamentos sobressalentes se mostra como importante ferramenta de análise de investimento para o projeto e planejamento da operação e manutenção de qualquer sistema de grande porte. Não sendo diferente no que contempla o sistema de distribuição elétrica no cenário brasileiro. Os sistemas de distribuição, regulados pela Agência Nacional de Energia Elétrica, precisam fornecer energia de forma segura, estável e com índices de defeito extremamente baixos, tornando-se cabíveis punições monetárias no caso de descumprimento das normas estabelecidas. Um dos pontos de maior sensibilidade em um sistema de distribuição são as subestações existentes no mesmo, onde os defeitos impactam um número elevado de consumidores, além de possuir equipamentos de grande custo de aquisição. A redundância em sistemas desse porte poderia reduzir consideravelmente as falhas, mas demandaria um investimento inicial muito elevado. Sendo assim, a existência de estoque estratégico torna-se relevante, visando diminuir a duração das falhas com o menor investimento possível. Os transformadores apresentam grande relevância em uma subestação, sendo possível a análise de estoque de unidades fixas, que atenderiam apenas uma localidade ou região, e o estoque de unidades móveis, que poderiam atender, ainda que em caráter provisório, diferentes regiões atingidas. Esta dissertação apresenta uma metodologia probabilística para a definição da estratégia de dimensionamento dos estoques de equipamentos reservas ao longo do tempo, dando enfoque às unidades móveis, sendo possível avaliar a confiabilidade do sistema, comparar os investimentos e custos operacionais de diferentes cenários. Permite também que sejam consideradas questões importantes, como o envelhecimento dos equipamentos, o aumento da carga com características diferentes para cada unidade a possibilidade de transferência de carga de uma unidade avariada para outra em funcionamento. Essas premissas proporcionam dados mais precisos para análise de investimentos, por considerar as condições individuais dos equipamentos. A ferramenta básica de análise será a simulação Monte Carlo cronológica, de modo a capturar precisamente todas as características do problema em questão. A metodologia acima proposta é aplicada a um grupo de transformadores da classe 138-13,8 kV, 25 MVA, visando demonstrar a capacidade da metodologia de encontrar as soluções condizentes do ponto de vista técnico e econômico. / [en] The sizing of equipment spares is an important investment analysis for the design and planning of the operation and maintenance of any large system. These concepts can also be applied to electric distribution systems of the interconnected Brazilian network. Distribution systems, regulated by the Brazilian Electricity Regulatory Agency, need to supply energy in a secure, stable, and extremely low fault rate, making monetary penalties possible in case of non-compliance with established standards. One of the most sensitive points in a distribution system is its current substations, where failures impact a large number of consumers, besides having relatively high-cost equipment. Redundancy in systems of this type could considerably reduce failures, but would require a very high initial investment. Thus, the need of a strategic inventory becomes relevant, aiming to reduce the duration of the failures with the least possible investment. Transformers are of great importance in an electric power station, whose spare requirements are usually assessed, but would only serve a locality or region, while the stock of mobile units, although on a temporary basis, would serve to different affected regions. This dissertation presents a probabilistic methodology for assessing of spare transformer requirements and the associated inventory acquisition strategy over time, focusing on mobile units. It includes the evaluation of reliability indices and comparison of investment and operational costs for different scenarios. It also allows important issues to be considered, such as equipment aging, load increasing with different characteristics for each unit, and the possibility of load transfers from one faulty unit to another in operation. These assumptions provide more accurate input data for investment analysis, considering the individual conditions of equipment. The basic tool to be used is the chronological Monte Carlo simulation that accurately captures all characteristics of the problem being solved. The proposed methodology is applied to a group of transformers of the class 138-13.8 kV, 25 MVA, aiming to demonstrate the ability of the proposed method to find the appropriate solutions from a technical and economic points of view.

Este trabalho apresenta o projeto de um amplificador de potência (PA) de rádio-frequência (RF) linear em tecnologia complementar metal-oxido silício (CMOS). Nele são analisados os desafios encontrados no projeto de PAs CMOS assim como soluções encontradas no estado-da-arte. Um destes desafios apresentados pela tecnologia é a baixa tensão de alimentação e passivos com alta perda, o que limita a potência de saída e a eficiência possível de ser atingida com métodos tradicionais de projeto de PA e suas redes de transformação de impedância. Este problema é solucionado através do uso de redes de combinação de impedância integradas, como a usada neste trabalho chamada transformador combinador em série (SCT). Os problemas com o uso de tecnologia CMOS se tornam ainda mais críticos para padrões de comunicação que requerem alta linearidade como os usados para redes sem-fio locais (WLAN) ou padrões de telefonia móvel 3G e 4G. Tais protocolos requerem que o PA opere em uma potência menor do que seu ponto de operação ótimo, degradando sua eficiência. Técnicas de linearização como pré-distorção digital são usadas para aumentar a potência média transmitida. Uma ténica analógica de compensação de distorção AM-PM através da linearização da capacitância de porta dos transistores é usada neste trabalho. O processo de projeto é detalhado e evidencia as relações de compromisso em cada passo, particularmente o impacto da terminação de harmônicos e a qualidade dos passivos na rede de transformação de carga. O projeto do SCT é otimizado para sintonia da impedância de modo comum que é usada para terminar o segundo harmonico de tensão do amplificador. O amplificador projetado tem um único estágio devido a área do chip ser limitada a 1:57 x 1:57 mm2, fato que impacta seu desempenho. O PA foi analisado através de simulação numérica sob várias métricas. Ele atinge uma potência máxima de saída de 24:4 dBm com uma eficiência de dreno de 24:53% e Eficiência em adição de potência (PAE) de 22%. O PA possui uma curva de ganho plana em toda faixa ISM de 2.4 GHz, com magnitude de 15:8 0:1dB. O PA tem um ponto de compressão de OP1dB = 20:03 dBm e o sinal tem um defasamento não-linear de = 1:2o até esta potência de saída. Um teste de intermodulação de dois tons com potência 3dB abaixo do OP1dB tem como resultado uma relação entre intermodulação de terceira ordem e fundamental de IMD3 = 24:22 dB, e de quinta ordem inferior e superior e fundamental de IMD5Inferior = 48:16 dB e IMD5Superior = 49:8 dB. Por fim, mostra-se que o PA satisfaz os requerimentos para operar no padrão IEEE 802.11g. Ele atinge uma potência média de saída de 15:4 dBm apresentando uma magnitude do vetor erro (EVM) de 5:43%, ou 25:3 dB e satisfazendo a máscara de saída para todos os canais. / This work presents the design of a fully integrated Radio-frequency (RF) linear Power Amplifier( PA) in complementary metal-oxide silicon (CMOS) technology. In this work we analyse the challenges in CMOS PA design as well as the state-of-the-art solutions. One such challenge presented by this technology is the low supply voltage and high-loss passives, which pose severe limits on the output power and efficiency achieved with traditional PA design methods and load impedance transformation networks. This issue is addressed by the use of on-chip, highly efficient power combining networks such as the one in this work: A series combining transformer (SCT). The problem of using CMOS becomes even more critical for recent communications standards that require high transmitter linearity such as the ones used for wireless local area network (WLAN) or 3G and 4G mobile communications. This requirement is such that the PA operate at a high power back-off from its optimum operating point, degrading efficiency. To address this problem linearization techniques such as digital pre-distortion can be used in order to decrease the necessary power back-off. In this work an analog technique of AM-PM distortion compensation is used to linearize the capacitance at the input of the amplifier’s transistors and reduce this type of distortion that severely impacts the error vector magnitude (EVM) of the signal. The design process is detailed and aims to make evident the trade-offs of PA design and particularly the impact of harmonic termination and the quality of passives on the load transformation network, the series combining transformer design is optimized for common-mode impedance tuning used for 2nd harmonic termination. The circuit has only a single amplifying stage due to its area being limited to 1:57 x 1:57 mm2 and the design is very constrained by this fact. The PA simulated performance is analyzed under various metrics. It achieves a simulated maximum output power of 24:4 dBm with a drain efficiency of 24:53% and power added efficiency (PAE) of 22%. The PA has a very flat power gain of 15:8 0:1 dB throughout the 2.4 GHz industrial, scientific and medical (ISM) band and is unconditionally stable with 4:9. The PA has a compression point of OP1dB = 20:03 dBm and the signal has a non-linear phase shift of = 1:2o up to this output power. A two-tone intermodulation test with 3dB back-off from OP1dB has a ratio of third-order intermodulation to fundamental of IMD3 = 24:22 dB, and lower and upper fifth order intermodulation to fundamental of IMD5Lower = 48:16 dB and IMD5Upper = 49:8 dB. Finally the PA is shown to satisfy the requirements for operation within the institute of electrical and electronic engineers (IEEE) 802.11g standard. It achieves an average output power of 15:4 dBm while having an EVM of 5:43% or 25:3 dB while satisfying the output spectrum mask for all channels.