Water constraints for humans and nature are gaining more and more public attention as a critical environmental dilemma that needs to be addressed. When aquifers and rivers are running dry, the debate refers to an ongoing “world water crisis”. This thesis focuses on the water and agricultural production complexity in a global, regional and local perspective during different phases of development. It addresses the river basin closing process in light of consumptive water use changes, land use alterations, past and future food production in waterscarce developing countries in general, and a south Indian case study basin in particular, the Bhavani basin in Tamil Nadu. The study focuses on early phases of global agricultural development and addresses consumptive use and river depletion in response to land use change and irrigation expansion. It shows that focus must be shifted from a water use to a consumptive water use notion that considers both green and blue water resources. The Bhavani basin development trajectory reveals a dynamic interplay between land and water resources and different socio-political groups during the “green revolution” period. The present system has emerged as a step-by-step adaptation in response to hydro-climatic variability, human demands and infrastructure constraints. The study reveals three kinds of basin closure: allocation closure; hydrological closure; and perception wise closure. Many concerted actions on multiple scales have contributed to an increasing water use complexity even after closure. The study shows the extent to which natural variability hides creeping changes, and that the “average year” is a deceptive basis for water allocation planning. Future consumptive water requirements to feed growing populations in the developing world is analysed with a back-casting country-based approach. The study shows a doubling of water requirements by 2050 and how the challenge can be halved by increased water productivity. Since blue water accessibility for irrigation clearly will be insufficient, additional green water has to be acquired by horizontal agricultural expansion into other terrestrial ecosystems. The task will be substantial and increase the importance of global food trade. / Vattenbrist för människor och ekosystem är en mer och mer uppmärksammad miljöfråga. Sjunkande grundvattennivåer och uttorkade floder gör att många talar om en ”global vattenkris”. Denna avhandling fokuserar på de komplexa sambanden mellan vatten och jordbruksproduktion utifrån ett globalt, regionalt och lokalt perspektiv under olika utvecklingsfaser under fyra sekler. Den redogör för hur avrinningsområden överintecknas och slutligen ”stängs” för ytterligare vattenutvinning. Effekterna av ökad vattenutvinning i relation till historisk och framtida matproduktion analyseras generellt i utvecklingsländer med vattenbrist, och i detalj i en fallstudie i Bhavani avrinningsområde i Tamil Nadu i södra Indien. Studien visar för den tidiga jordbruksutvecklingen på global nivå hur förändrad markanvändning och bevattningsexpansion leder till förändrad balans mellan evapotranspiration och avrinning, med uttorkning av vattendrag som följd. Den visar vidare vikten av ett paradigmskifte där fokus flyttas från vattenanvändning till ”konsumerande” vattenanvändning, och som inkluderar både grönvatten- och blåvattenresurser. Analysen av Bhavaniområdets utvecklingskurva under det senaste seklets jordbruksutveckling visar på ett dynamiskt växelspel mellan land- och vattenresurser och mellan olika samhällsgrupper. Den nuvarande vattenanvändningssituationen har stegvis växt fram som en respons på hydroklimatisk variabilitet, människors behov och infrastrukturbegränsningar. Studien påvisar att ett avrinningsområde kan ses som ”stängt” på tre skilda sätt: när flödet är överintecknat, när utflödet sinar, och när vattenanvändare upplever att behoven överstiger tillgången. Även efter ”stängning” har etablering och intensifiering av vattenutvinning fortsatt och resulterat i ett alltmer komplext och sammanflätat vattenanvändningsmönster. Studien visar vidare hur hög hydroklimatisk variabilitet, dels gör att ”genomsnittlig vattentillgång” är förledande vid planering av vattenfördelning i ett avrinningsområde, och dels döljer smygande kumulativa effekter av ökad vattenutvinning. Slutligen anlyseras ländervis framtida vattenbehov för att möta matbehovet i världens utvecklingsländer, vilket visar på en fördubbling fram till 2050. Tack vare ökad vattenproduktivitet kan behovet emellertid halveras. Endast en bråkdel av det resterande behovet kan mötas genom ökad bevattning, dvs. med mera blåvatten. En stor del av vattenbehovet måste istället täckas med mera grönvatten via uppodling av andra terrestra ekosystem. Uppgiften innebär en betydande utmaning och global handel med jordbruksprodukter kommer att öka avsevärt i betydelse.

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The fast-paced growth in microelectromechanical systems (MEMS), microfluidic fabrication, porous media applications, biomedical assemblies, space propulsion, and vacuum technology demands accurate and practical transport equations for rarefied gas flows. It is well-known that in rarefied situations, due to strong deviations from the continuum regime, traditional fluid models such as Navier-Stokes-Fourier (NSF) fail. The shortcoming of continuum models is rooted in nonequilibrium behavior of gas particles in miniaturized and/or low-pressure devices, where the Knudsen number (Kn) is sufficiently large. Since kinetic solutions are computationally very expensive, there has been a great desire to develop macroscopic transport equations for dilute gas flows, and as a result, several sets of extended equations are proposed for gas flow in nonequilibrium states. However, applications of many of these extended equations are limited due to their instabilities and/or the absence of suitable boundary conditions. In this work, we concentrate on regularized 13-moment (R13) equations, which are a set of macroscopic transport equations for flows in the transition regime, i.e., Kn≤1. The R13 system provides a stable set of equations in Super-Burnett order, with a great potential to be a powerful CFD tool for rarefied flow simulations at moderate Knudsen numbers. The goal of this research is to implement the R13 equations for problems of practical interest in arbitrary geometries. This is done by transformation of the R13 equations and boundary conditions into general curvilinear coordinate systems. Next steps include adaptation of the transformed equations in order to solve some of the popular test cases, i.e., shear-driven, force-driven, and temperature-driven flows in both planar and curved flow passages. It is shown that inexpensive analytical solutions of the R13 equations for the considered problems are comparable to expensive numerical solutions of the Boltzmann equation. The new results present a wide range of linear and nonlinear rarefaction effects which alter the classical flow patterns both in the bulk and near boundary regions. Among these, multiple Knudsen boundary layers (mechanocaloric heat flows) and their influence on mass and energy transfer must be highlighted. Furthermore, the phenomenon of temperature dip and Knudsen paradox in Poiseuille flow; Onsager's reciprocity relation, two-way flow pattern, and thermomolecular pressure difference in simultaneous Poiseuille and transpiration flows are described theoretically. Through comparisons it is shown that for Knudsen numbers up to 0.5 the compact R13 solutions exhibit a good agreement with expensive solutions of the Boltzmann equation.

No description available.

The Canterbury plains are frequently exposed to summer drought and climate predictions forecast that the severity and frequency of summer drought will increase. The most commonly used pasture grass, perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.), is drought sensitive. One possible method to maintain sward dry matter (DM) production under water stress is to use an alternative grass species such as tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea Schreb.). The objective of this research was to compare summer DM production of monoculture swards of perennial ryegrass and tall fescue under various seasonal drought regimes to study physiological and biochemical drought responses of each species. Data were collected over a period of two-summer seasons, Season One (2006-2007) and Season Two (2007-2008) in an automated rain shelter at Lincoln, Canterbury. Drought treatments included exposure of plants to a spring or autumn drought or a four-weekly "irrigated" drought regime. DM yields of the two species were similar under each watering regime. The control treatment, under non-limiting conditions, has the highest accumulated yield in both Season One and Two for ryegrass (17.1 and 15.7 t DM ha⁻¹) and tall fescue (18.8 and 16.0 t DM ⁻¹) respectively. Spring and autumn drought treatments were similar for the two species in accumulated yield in either season, however the exposure to drought stress returned yields lower than the control. Consistently, the lowest-yielding treatment was the four-weekly irrigated drought, which resulted in an average yield across species in Season One of 10.1 t DM ha⁻¹ and 8.35 t DM ha⁻¹ in Season Two. Growth rates of the swards were calculated using accumulated DM production against accumulated thermal time using a base temperature of 3°C for both species. The control treatments showed a strong linear relationship for both species in both seasons, though Season Two showed a period of approximately 390 °Cd of no growth. Spring growth was similar for all treatments until October when both the spring drought and four-weekly irrigated treatment deviated from the control as water stress commenced. Growth also ceased under autumn drought later in the season. The physiological drought responses between species and among treatments differed. Tall fescue under control conditions had the highest photosynthesis rates of 20.5 µmol CO₂ m⁻² s⁻¹,or 22% higher than ryegrass, whereas the four-weekly irrigated treatment showed no inter-species differences. Differences were also found for other gas exchange parameters. Physiological water use efficiency (phys WUE) in ryegrass was 15% greater than tall fescue in Season Two. Photosynthesis and gas exchange rates against leaf water potential showed declining gas flow in both species across all treatments in response to drying soil conditions and across all irrigation treatments. The osmo-protectant proline was 22% higher in concentration in ryegrass than in tall fescue in Season Two and increased in drought stressed treatments in both seasons. Water stress was found to reduce total chlorophyll concentrations in all treatments and in tall fescue, while little change occurred in the chlorophyll a:b ratio. In conclusion, the findings from this thesis suggest similar DM responses for the two species under drought. The findings suggests that tall fescue performs more as a "water user" under drought conditions, compared with perennial ryegrass, which is more a "water saver." Resonses to the changing environment to a point, before "shuttting up shop" through lower stomatal conductance.

Faidherbia albida (Del.) A. Chev. (syn. Acacia albida, Del.) est un arbre a usages multiples de la famille des légumineuses, très répandu en Afrique. Sa stratégie face à la sécheresse apparaît très originale : il est présent en zone semi-aride mais sa phénologie est inversée par rapport aux pluies : il débourre en fin de saison des pluies, fructifie et croît en cours de saison sèche, puis perd ses feuilles au début de la nouvelle saison des pluies. Son fonctionnement hydrique est très peu connu. Nous avons mené des suivis saisonniers du fonctionnement hydrique d'arbres adultes en parc agroforestier (Burkina Faso, Afrique de l'Ouest ; 920 mm de pluies). Le potentiel hydrique de base est reste élevé tout au long de la saison sèche, indiquant que les arbres accédaient en permanence à des horizons de sol très bien pourvus en eau. Les racines descendaient jusqu'au voisinage de la nappe (-7 à -15 m selon les sites). La teneur isotopique en oxygène de l'eau du sol, de la nappe et de la sève brute indiquait que les arbres absorbaient essentiellement au voisinage de la nappe, sauf au moment des pluies, où ils opéraient un basculement vers la surface. Les arbres transpiraient intensément, notamment au début de la saison sèche (environ 400 l/jour pour un arbre de 65 cm de diamètre, mesuré par une méthode de flux de sève). Mais la densité des tiges était faible, et la transpiration annuelle de la composante arbre des parcelles est restée inférieure à 5 % des pluies. En cours de saison sèche, la contrainte hydrique édaphique a augmenté modérément (légère diminution des potentiels hydriques de base, réduction de 50 % de la conductance hydraulique totale spécifique sol-feuilles). Les composantes édaphique et atmosphérique de la contrainte hydrique ont probablement contribué à la fermeture des stomates en cours de saison sèche. Nous avons suivi les variations de l'efficience intrinsèque d'utilisation de l'eau (rapport de l'assimilation nette à la conductance stomatique, A/g) à l'aide de la composition isotopique en carbone des feuilles. A/g a diminué en cours de saison sèche malgré la fermeture de stomates. La capacité photosynthétique a donc pu être affectée, et nous avons recherché une cause nutritionnelle. La teneur en azote foliaire a effectivement chuté de 50 % en cours de saison sèche : F. albida n'absorbait et ne fixait probablement l'azote que dans une étroite " fenêtre " correspondant à l'initiation foliaire, lorsque les horizons de surface sont encore humectés et que l'azote de surface reste mobilisable. La croissance radiale s'est arrêtée précocement en cours de saison sèche, avant la chute des feuilles : elle était peut-être aussi tributaire de la réduction de la capacité photosynthétique. La chute des feuilles a commencé après les nouvelles pluies, elle serait donc indépendante de la sécheresse édaphique : en revanche, l'étroite " fenêtre " d'assimilation et de fixation prédisposerait à la sénescence des feuilles en cours de saison sèche, et pourrait expliquer leur abscission. La stratégie d'utilisation de l'eau de juvéniles qui n'ont pas encore atteint la nappe est certainement très critique, et pourrait expliquer pourquoi certaines provenances à croissance rapide montrent de faibles taux de survie dans les essais pratiqués en zone sèche. Nous avons utilisé des provenances panafricaines à croissance initiale contrastée pour décrire la diversité des caractères écophysiologiques de F. albida au stade jeune plant. Nous avons testé les facteurs : provenance, disponibilité en eau du sol et site expérimental (en serre à Nancy-France ou en pépinière à Ouagadougou-Burkina Faso), facteurs qui sont susceptibles d'affecter I'effïcience d'utilisation de l'eau intégrée (W : rapport biomasse sèche produite sur eau consommée). La fixation de l'azote peut également moduler W, en jouant soit sur A, soit sur l'allocation de carbone pour la symbiose. La fixation de l'azote a été estimée par l'abondance naturelle de l'azote 15, et modulée par l'apport de phosphore. Les provenances vigoureuses présentaient une surface foliaire et une transpiration plus importantes et investissaient moins dans la croissance racinaire. Les écarts de vigueur entre provenances étaient très réduits sur le site plus contraignant de Ouagadougou : les provenances vigoureuses perdaient une grande partie de leur avantage de croissance initiale, montrant une moindre rusticité. Ces éléments semblent essentiels pour interpréter leur médiocre survie en zone sèche. Les différences inter-provenances de W, A/g et de discrimination isotopique du carbone, étaient significatives mais modérées. A/g était meilleur pour les provenances les plus vigoureuses, un fait confirmé par la discrimination isotopique du carbone. Mais la relation entre W et la discrimination isotopique du carbone différait entre provenances, probablement en raison de différences dans les processus non-photosynthétiques. Les provenances vigoureuses, qui fixaient davantage d'azote, présentaient des valeurs de W plus faibles pour une même valeur de la discrimination isotopique du carbone. Des pertes de carbone, liées peut-être aux exigences de la symbiose pourraient expliquer ceci. La relation entre W et la discrimination isotopique du carbone, testée sur les deux sites, différait principalement à cause des différences de déficit de saturation de l'air. La relation entre A/g et la discrimination isotopique du carbone semblait conservée au contraire. Nous en concluons qu'il existait un lien étroit entre A/g et la discrimination isotopique du carbone, démontrant la pertinence de l'utilisation du carbone 13 sur le terrain pour estimer A/g, mais pas W. Faidherbia albida apparaît en définitive comme une espéce phréatophyte à l'état adulte, ce qui I'affranchit relativement de la contrainte hydrique édaphique. Son débourrement très tardif a peu d'impact sur son fonctionnement hydrique, mais affecte grandement la nutrition, et probablement la photosynthèse et la croissance. Au stade juvénile, les stomates se ferment très rapidement en réponse à une sécheresse édaphique modérée, montrant une stratégie " d'évitement " de la sécheresse. Nous concluons que F. albida représente un excellent modèle végétal pour l'étude de l'impact de la sécheresse à différents stades physiologiques. (Résumé d'auteur)

Evapotranspiration is a nexus for planetary energy and carbon cycles, as yet poorly constrained. Here I use stable isotopes of oxygen and hydrogen to partition flux of water due to plant transpiration from the direct evaporative flux from soils, water bodies and plant. The study areas, Langat and Kelantan watersheds represent examples of domains dominated by the respective Southwest and Northeast monsoons on the two sides of the main orographic barrier (Titiwangsa mountain range). Mean annual rainfall for the Langat watershed, obtained from 30 years of hydrological data, is 2145 ± 237 mm. Tentatively, 48% of this precipitation returns to the atmosphere via transpiration (T), with 33% partitioned into discharge (Q), 8% into interception (In), and 11% into evaporation (Ed). In the Kelantan watershed, the mean annual rainfall, also based on the 30 year hydrological data, is 2383 ± 120 mm. Similar to Langat, the T accounts for 43% of precipitation (P), 45% is discharged into South China Sea (Q), 12% partitioned into interception (In) and tentatively 0% for evaporation (Ed). Ed for the Langat watershed represents only a small proportion in terms of volumetric significance, up to almost ~11% with strong effect on the isotopic fingerprints of waters associated with the summer Southwest Monsoon (SWM). Note, however, that insignificant Ed for the Kelantan watershed may be an artefact of rain and river water sampling at only coastal downstream portion of the watershed. High humidity (80%) also was recorded for the Malaysian Peninsula watershed. T appropriates about half of all solar energy absorbed by the continents, here ~1000*103 g H2O m-2 yr-1 similar to other tropical regions at 900-1200*103 g H2O m-2 yr-1. The associated carbon fluxes are ~ 1300 g C m-2yr-1, independent of P. Vegetation responses to solar irradiance, via T and photosynthesis reflects the importance of stomatal regulation of the water and carbon fluxes. In order to maintain high transpiration in the tropical region, “constant” water supply is required for continuous pumping of water that delivers nutrients to the plant, suggesting that water and carbon cycle are co-driven by the energy of the sun. The existence of the water conveyor belt may be precondition for nutrient delivery, hence operation of the carbon cycle. Potentially, this may change our perspective on the role that biology plays in the water cycle. In such perspective, the global water cycle is the medium that redistributes the incoming solar energy across the planet, and the anatomical structures of plants then help to optimize the loop of energy transfer via evaporation and precipitation in the hydrologic cycle. The main features of aquatic geochemistry of the Langat and Kelantan rivers inferred from the Principal Component Analysis are controlled by three components that explain 80% and 82% of total variances. These components are reflecting of the geogenic factor with superimposed pollution, the latter particularly pronounced in urbanized sections of the Langat river and dominant in downstream of the Kelantan river. There is no correlation between seasonal variations in major ion chemistry and environmental variables such as precipitation, discharge, temperature or solar activity.

Evapotranspiration is a nexus for planetary energy and carbon cycles, as yet poorly constrained. Here I use stable isotopes of oxygen and hydrogen to partition flux of water due to plant transpiration from the direct evaporative flux from soils, water bodies and plant. The study areas, Langat and Kelantan watersheds represent examples of domains dominated by the respective Southwest and Northeast monsoons on the two sides of the main orographic barrier (Titiwangsa mountain range). Mean annual rainfall for the Langat watershed, obtained from 30 years of hydrological data, is 2145 ± 237 mm. Tentatively, 48% of this precipitation returns to the atmosphere via transpiration (T), with 33% partitioned into discharge (Q), 8% into interception (In), and 11% into evaporation (Ed). In the Kelantan watershed, the mean annual rainfall, also based on the 30 year hydrological data, is 2383 ± 120 mm. Similar to Langat, the T accounts for 43% of precipitation (P), 45% is discharged into South China Sea (Q), 12% partitioned into interception (In) and tentatively 0% for evaporation (Ed). Ed for the Langat watershed represents only a small proportion in terms of volumetric significance, up to almost ~11% with strong effect on the isotopic fingerprints of waters associated with the summer Southwest Monsoon (SWM). Note, however, that insignificant Ed for the Kelantan watershed may be an artefact of rain and river water sampling at only coastal downstream portion of the watershed. High humidity (80%) also was recorded for the Malaysian Peninsula watershed. T appropriates about half of all solar energy absorbed by the continents, here ~1000*103 g H2O m-2 yr-1 similar to other tropical regions at 900-1200*103 g H2O m-2 yr-1. The associated carbon fluxes are ~ 1300 g C m-2yr-1, independent of P. Vegetation responses to solar irradiance, via T and photosynthesis reflects the importance of stomatal regulation of the water and carbon fluxes. In order to maintain high transpiration in the tropical region, “constant” water supply is required for continuous pumping of water that delivers nutrients to the plant, suggesting that water and carbon cycle are co-driven by the energy of the sun. The existence of the water conveyor belt may be precondition for nutrient delivery, hence operation of the carbon cycle. Potentially, this may change our perspective on the role that biology plays in the water cycle. In such perspective, the global water cycle is the medium that redistributes the incoming solar energy across the planet, and the anatomical structures of plants then help to optimize the loop of energy transfer via evaporation and precipitation in the hydrologic cycle. The main features of aquatic geochemistry of the Langat and Kelantan rivers inferred from the Principal Component Analysis are controlled by three components that explain 80% and 82% of total variances. These components are reflecting of the geogenic factor with superimposed pollution, the latter particularly pronounced in urbanized sections of the Langat river and dominant in downstream of the Kelantan river. There is no correlation between seasonal variations in major ion chemistry and environmental variables such as precipitation, discharge, temperature or solar activity.

One of the main challenges in promoting rainwater management into practise is the fact that it was not recognized as an interdisciplinary issue. We should seek ways how to open the problem to other professions, specially for architects and urban planners, who are the key element of its farther development. This work analyzes the reasons of this unsatisfactory state of rainwater management in the Czech Republic and it defines the possible ways how to remedy this state and outlines scenarios of its further development. The default document of the work is czech technical standard "TNV 75 9010 Hospodaření se srážkovými vodami". The new methodological guide, which is part of this work, is based on it. The work extends the range of measures which are mentioned in the standard. It brings new ways for assessing the benefits of the various measures to streamline the application of rainwater management measures in urban space.

No description available.