Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico / In order to overcome periods of drought and low water availability, deficit irrigation becomes an important tool as long as it is applied on the least sensitive periods of the crops development to reduce the impacts on the productivity. Furthermore, deficit irrigation can be most efficient when there is an understanding of the way plants lose water. Crop evapotranspiration (ETc) is divided into soil evaporation (Es) and crop transpiration (Tc). The objectives of this paper were, beside measuring the soil water balance for different crops (bean, soybean and maize), was to determine adequate crop base coefficients (Kcb) for southern Brazil conditions, partition ETc into Es and Tc to better evaluate and understand soil water dynamics along the crops development cycle, determine water productivity (WP) considering different levels of deficit irrigation, to compare scenarios of water consumption on main and secondary crop schedules. The soil water balance model SIMDualKc was used, after due calibration and validation, using the dual crop coefficient methodology (Kc dual). A series of experiments were done (drybeans in 2010/11; maize in secondary schedule in 2010/11; maize in 2011/12; and soybean in 2014/15), with the imposition of different irrigation deficits as treatments, using drip irrigation and mulching. The results of SIMDualKc simulations show good agreement between the observed and simulated available soil water (ASW) content, values of regression coefficients (b0) were in average 0,98 for drybeans, 0,97 for soybean, 1,0 for secondary schedule maize and 1,05 for regular maize. The adjusted Kcb values for local conditions were respectively to bean, soybean and maize, 0,15; 0,15; 0,2 for the initial period (Kcb ini), 1,03; 1,0; 1,12 for the middle season (Kcb mid); and 0,2 for the end season for all crops (Kcb end). The results of water balance for each crop show that the less water is given to the plants, the better the water use, keeping in mind that ETc have not reduced in the same proportion. Regarding main and secondary schedules for maize the results for soil water balance show that main schedule maize had an increased water consumption (higher ETc) when compared to secondary schedule. The Es component was lower than 26% of ETc, for bean and soybean, and lower than 9% of ETc for maize, indicating the positive effect of mulching. / Para contornar períodos de secas e de baixa disponibilidade hídrica, a irrigação deficitária constitui-se em uma ferramenta importante, desde que aplicada nos períodos menos sensíveis das culturas, a fim de reduzir os impactos sobre a produtividade das culturas. Além disso, a irrigação deficitária pode ser mais eficiente quando se compreende o modo como ocorre a perda de água pelas plantas, a evapotranspiração das culturas (ETc), que se divide em evaporação do solo (Es) e transpiração da cultura (Tc). Os objetivos deste trabalho consistiram em (a) realizar o balanço hídrico do solo cultivado com diferentes culturas (feijão, soja e milho) e determinar os coeficientes de cultura basal (Kcb) mais adequados para as condições do Sul do Brasil; (b) particionar a ETc em Es e Tc para melhor avaliação e entendimento da dinâmica da água no solo ao longo do ciclo das culturas; (c) avaliação da produtividade da água (WP) considerando diferentes níveis de irrigação deficitária; (d) comparação de cenários entre cultivo de safra e safrinha no que se refere ao consumo de água pelas plantas. Para isso, utilizou-se o modelo de balanço hídrico SIMDualKc, o qual foi devidamente calibrado e validado, e que utiliza a metodologia dos coeficientes culturais duais (Kc dual). Experimentos foram conduzidos (feijão em 2010/11; milho safrinha em 2010/11; milho safra em 2011/12; e soja em 2014/15), com a imposição de diferentes níveis de déficit hídrico, utilizando a irrigação por gotejamento e com presença de resíduos vegetais na superfície do solo. Os resultados obtidos com as simulações do modelo SIMDualKc apresentaram boa concordância entre os valores de água disponível no solo (ASW) observados e simulados, com valores de coeficiente de regressão (b0) de, em média, 0,98 para feijão, 0,97 para soja, 1,0 para milho safrinha e 1,05 para milho safra. Os valores de Kcb ajustados para as condições locais foram, respectivamente para feijão, soja, milho, para o período inicial (Kcb ini) 0,15; 0,15; 0,2; para o período intermediário (Kcb mid) 1,03; 1,0; 1,12; e para o período final (Kcb end) 0,2 para todas as culturas. Os resultados do balanço hídrico do solo para cada uma das culturas demonstraram que quanto menor a quantidade de água aplicada nas plantas, melhor uso foi feito desta água pelas plantas, tendo em vista que a ETc não reduziu-se na mesma proporção. No que se refere a comparação de cenários entre milho safra e safrinha, os resultados do balanço hídrico do solo também demonstraram que o milho cultivado durante a época de safra teve um maior consumo de água (maior ETc) quando comparado ao milho cultivado no período de safrinha. O componente Es foi inferior a 26% da ETc, para feijão e soja, e inferior a 9% da ETc para milho safra e safrinha, indicando assim o efeito positivo da utilização de resíduos vegetais sobre a superfície do solo.

Para que ocorra a indução floral em citros, as plantas necessitam passar por algum tipo de estresse hídrico ou térmico (baixas temperaturas). Apesar do estresse hídrico ser importante para o florescimento, condições extremas deste tipo de estresse podem prejudicar o desenvolvimento e a fixação dos frutos na planta posteriormente ao período de florescimento. Neste sentido, a redução da fração de área molhada do solo pode também ser uma fonte de estresses hídrico nas plantas. Dessa forma, o presente trabalho tem como objetivo estudar o efeito do estresse hídrico e da fração de área molhada (100% e 12,5%) nas relações hídricas da laranjeira Valência, sob dois tipos solo e dois porta-enxertos. O experimento foi conduzido na área de pesquisa do Departamento de Engenharia de Biossistemas na Escola Superior de Agricultura Luiz de Queiroz (ESALQ/USP) em ambiente protegido. Foi utilizado o delineamento em esquema fatorial 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 com os tratamentos dispostos em faixas, totalizando 16 tratamentos, constituídos da combinação de dois tipos de solos (argiloso e franco-arenoso), dois porta-enxertos (limoeiro Cravo e citrumelo Swingle), duas frações de área molhada (100% e 12,5%) e dois níveis de deficiência hídrica: 1) Estresse Hídrico Contínuo (suspensão da irrigação por 30 dias) 2) Estresse Hídrico Intermitente (sub-lâmina) - aplicação de 30% da ET0. As plantas foram conduzidas em caixas de 500 L internamente divididas em compartimentos. O inicio do experimento de estresse hídrico consistiu em realizar a irrigação do volume total do solo, elevando-o a capacidade de campo, sendo suspensas as irrigações durante o período de avaliação, sendo após realizado o acompanhamento diário do consumo hídrico em cada compartimento das caixas. Amostrou-se o sistema radicular das plantas, para cada compartimento existente para averiguar a existência de adaptação radicular em função da restrição de área molhada. Determinou-se simultaneamente a transpiração de todas as plantas através de sondas de dissipação térmica, o conteúdo de água no solo, o crescimento das plantas (área foliar e diâmetro de caule), o potencial de água na folha e a temperatura foliar. A extração de água no solo após 6 meses de irrigação localizada indica que o sistema radicular na zona irrigada consegue redistribuir parte da água absorvida, pelo sistema radicular da planta que se encontra na área seca, mantendo-o vivo. Observa-se que no solo argiloso as plantas apresentaram um maior comprimento total de raízes do que no solo arenoso. A média do módulo do potencial da água na folha das plantas sob condição simulada de irrigação por gotejamento, foi 31,5% maior quando comparado às plantas com 100% de solo molhado (-1,085 MPa e -0,7435 MPa). Em termos de área foliar, o estresse contínuo promoveu uma maior desfolha das plantas, sendo significativa a diferença entre os tipos de solo, as condições de estresses e a interação tipo de solo e porta-enxertos. Treze dias após a imposição dos estresses, a temperatura foliar, nos períodos de maior demanda atmosférica (14:00hs) tende a ser maior do que a temperatura do ar. Independente do tipo de estresse, para solo arenoso a transpiração diminui quanto se impõe a redução de área molhada (gotejamento). Esperava-se que os tipos de estresse hídrico impostos apresentassem uma diferenciação de consumo hídrico nas plantas, no período de retomada da irrigação, sendo o estresse intermitente o que deveria apresentar o maior consumo hídrico; nos resultados obtidos não ficou muito clara e estabilizada esta tendência, apesar do nível de desfolha e o potencial de água nas folhas confirmaram as hipóteses inicialmente formuladas. Existe a possibilidade de que o método de dissipação térmica tenha sofrido influência significativa da desfolha no gradiente térmico natural, o que pode ter ocasionado imprecisão nos dados coletados e resultado inconsistência nos fluxos de seiva calculados neste período de baixo índice de área foliar. / In order to present floral induction, citrus plants need to undergo some type of thermal (low temperature) or water stresses. However, despite a certain level of water stress is important for the flowering, excessive water stress can impair the development and fruit set in the plant. In this sense, to reduce the fraction of wetted area of the soil can also be a source of water stress in plants. This paper aims to study the effect of water stress and the fraction of wetted area (100% and 12.5%) in Valencia orange tree transpiration under two soil types and two rootstocks. The experiment was conducted at the Department of Biosystems Engineering at the School of Agriculture \"Luiz de Queiroz\" (ESALQ / USP) in a protected environment. It was used a randomized design in a factorial 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 with treatments arranged in strips, totaling 16 treatments combinations, consisting of two soil types (clay and sandy loam), two-door grafts (Rangpur lime and citrumelo \'Swingle\'), two fractions of wetted area (100% and 12,5%) and two levels of water stress: 1) Continuous Stress (suspension of irrigation for 30 days) 2) Intermittent Stress (deficit irrigation: 30% ET0). The plants were conducted in 500 L boxes divided into compartments inside. At the beginning of the water stress experiment, soil moisture was set to field capacity. Irrigation was suspended during the evaluation period, and it was monitoring every day the water consumption in each compartment boxes. Root systems of plants were sampled for each compartment to determine total length of roots in the soil. It were determined the individual transpiration of each plant using thermal dissipation probes (sap flow / Granier), the water content in soil, the plant growth (leaf area and stem diameter), the leaf water potential and leaf temperature. The extraction of water in the soil after 6 months of drip irrigation indicates that the root system in the irrigated area redistribute some of the absorbed water to the root system that is in the dry area, keeping it alive waiting for the raining period. It was observed for the clay soil a greater total length of roots compared to the sandy soil. The mean of leaf water potential for plants under simulated drip irrigation conditions (12.5 % wetted area) was 31,5% higher compared to plants with 100% of wetted area (-1,085 MPa and -0,7435 MPa). In terms of leaf area, the continuous stress promoted a greater leaf loss of plants, with a significant difference between soil types, stress types and the interaction of soil type and rootstock. Thirteen days after the imposition of the water stresses, leaf temperature at around 2:00 pm tends to be higher than air temperature. For sandy soil, independent of the water stress type, transpiration decreases as the wetted area is reduced (drip). It was expected for the water stress types imposed, a differentiation of plants water consumption after resuming irrigation for fruit set, being the intermittent stress the greatest water consumption treatment. The results obtained are unclear and non-stabilized for this trend, although leaf losses and leaf water potential confirmed the hypothesis initially formulated. There is a possibility that thermal dissipation probles suffered significant influence of leaf losses on the natural thermal gradient, which may have caused inaccuracies in the collected data, resulting inconsistent values of sap flow calculated for this period of low leaf area index.

No description available.

Water BudgetThis chapter documents the hydrologic analysis of a watershed within the Windy Ridge mega-landslide of Central Utah to (1) create a water budget and (2) place a quantitative limit on the magnitude of climatic changes documented by Shurtliff et al. (2017) and Hudson et al. (2019). (1) A water budget was calculated over the last four years using instrumentation and weather stations both within and surrounding the watershed, In terms of precipitation input, 85% is released by the evapotranspiration of the Pinyon-Juniper forest, 4% discharges as surface water from the base of the watershed, and 11 % infiltrates the groundwater system. This infiltration rate is slightly lower than the 15% suggested by Maxey-Eakin method (Maxey and Eakin, 1949), likely due to the less permeable, clay-rich sediment. (2) Previous studies performed on Garden Basin Cattail (GBC) Fen at the base of its watershed suggest swings from pond-like to wetland environments (Shurtliff et al, 2017; Hudson et al, 2019). This study estimated precipitation values necessary to create standing water (pond) environments. Changes in annual precipitation, as well as input from North American monsoon (NAM), may cause these environmental changes. Each of these cases were examined. Trends in piezometer measurements compared to mean annual precipitation indicated that ‰¥ 644 mm of annual precipitation are required to sustain a wet (perennial standing water) environment. The change from wetland to pond conditions may depend on seasonal trends in precipitation. This study suggests an increase of 150-300 mm of precipitation in late summer (NAM) may be connected to perennially wet conditions. The higher annual precipitation values, largely accomplished by NAM fluctuations, caused a transition from wetland to pond (Hudson et al., 2019; Shurtliff et al., 2017). Chapter 2: Core AnalysisChapter 2 further documents the watershed's historical environmental and climate record by analyzing sediment and topography surrounding GBC fen, adding to the works of Shurtliff et al. (2019) and Hudson et al. (2019). A core was extracted from GBC fen at the base of the watershed and the sediment analyzed in terms of color, texture, environmental scanning electron microscope (ESEM) imaging, RockEval pyrolysis, and 14C ages. These results were then compared to pre-existing pollen and diatom proxies completed on a previous core by Shurtliff et al. (2019). This study suggests climatic variation, along with basin fill processes, was the driver of environmental change in GBC fen (Garden Basin watershed). Climate proxies show the basic trend from a particularly wet period (12-9 ka BP) of more stagnant or deeper water, to a much dryer period of much shallower water levels (9-3 ka BP), followed by a rebound in moisture levels, especially in the past few hundred years. Although climate was the driver of transitions within GBC2 core, a pollen record of sustained shallow water plants and MASW (Park et al., 1999) survey may suggest beaver activity.

The main aim of this work is to study the thermal conductivity of base fluid with mild inclusion of nanoparticles. We perform numerical study for transportation of Maxwell nanofluids with activation energy and Cattaneo–Christov flux over an extending sheet along with mass transpiration. Further, bioconvection of microorganisms may support avoiding the possible settling of nanoentities. We formulate the theoretical study as a nonlinear coupled boundary value problem involving partial derivatives. Then ordinary differential equations are obtained from the leading partial differential equations with the help of appropriate similarity transformations. We obtain numerical results by using the Runge–Kutta fourth-order method with shooting technique. The effects of various physical parameters such as mixed convection, buoyancy ratio, Raleigh number, Lewis number, Prandtl number, magnetic parameter, mass transpiration on bulk flow, temperature, concentration, and distributions of microorganisms are presented in graphical form. Also, the skin friction coefficient, Nusselt number, Sherwood number, and motile density number are calculated and presented in the form of tables. The validation of numerical procedure is confirmed through its comparison with the existing results. The computation is carried out for suitable inputs of the controlling parameters.

The water use by short rotation coppices (SRC) has been a focus of ongoing research in the last decades. Nevertheless, investigations that consider site factors and present long-term monitoring of the components of the water balance are rare. This research quantified the tree-based transpiration in the 4th growing season of uncoppiced 1st rotational hybrid poplar stands (Populus deltoides Bart. ex Marsh × P. nigra L. “AF2”) in western Slovakia. The aim of the study was to determine the influence of meteorological and soil-related site conditions on transpiration rates. Three experimental plots were located in the Morava River floodplains, on loamy sand-textured soils with different groundwater accessibilities: higher, low, and fluctuating groundwater level. We measured sap flow (Heat Ratio Method), volumetric water content, matric potential, groundwater level, and meteorological variables throughout the growing season in 2019. The results indicated that transpiration in the three sites was almost constant during that period, which was characterized by distinct conditions. The average cumulative transpiration at the site with a higher groundwater level (1105 mm) was larger than at the site with a lower groundwater level (632 mm) and the site with fluctuating groundwater (863 mm). A principal component analysis (PCA) and correlation analysis identified that the contribution of meteorological and soil-related site variables to transpiration differed among the sites. Soil water availability and groundwater accessibility are critical variables for the water use of poplar SRC. We concluded that the combination of site conditions needs to be reconsidered for the expansion of sustainable short rotation plantations in Europe.

This study examined the affects of desiccation during and after cold storage on the physiology, growth, and marketability of bare-root Acer platanoides (Norway maple), Crataegus phaenopyrum (Washington hawthorn) and Prunus x yedoensis (Yoshino cherry). Histological examination of Acer and Crataegus stems was also conducted. Maple and cherry trees were transplanted into pine bark-filled containers and subjected to mist or non-mist treatments. Xylem water potential increased (became less negative) for misted maple and cherry trees. Water potential increased for non-misted maple and decreased for non-misted cherry trees. Maple and hawthorn seedlings were subjected to cold storage durations of 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, and 12 weeks and storage treatments: whole plant covered, shoots exposed, roots exposed and whole plant exposed. Shoot (Ψ_s) and root (Ψ_r) water potentials for all treatments and both species decreased during storage. For maple, (Ψ_s) and (Ψ_r) of the exposed shoot treatment were the same as the whole plant covered treatment. In contrast, hawthorn (Ψ_s) and (Ψ_r) of the exposed shoot treatment were lower (more negative) than for the whole plant covered treatment. Root hydraulic conductivity was the same for both species and decreased with increased storage duration and for treatments with exposed roots. For the root covered treatments, maple root growth potential (RGP) increased while hawthorn RGP decreased with increased cold storage duration. RGP for both species remained low throughout storage for treatments exposing roots. Days to bud break for Acer and Crataegus seedlings decreased with increased storage time for the whole plant covered treatments but increased for both species when stored with exposed roots. Maple marketability, percent of trees with ≤ 10% shoot dieback, for root covered treatments was high for most storage durations. Hawthorn marketability was generally low except for the whole plant covered treatment during the first six weeks of storage. There was a high positive correlation between RGP and marketability for both maple and hawthorn. Histological examination revealed that Acer stems had a highly suberized periderm, and a uniform cuticle with few disruptions. Periderm suberization of Crataegus stems was variable and extensive peridermal cracking was evident. Cuticle wax decreased with increasing distance from the stem apex for both species. Collectively, results indicated that hawthorn stems had more pathways for water loss than maple shoots. While protection of roots of all bare-root stock is important, desiccation sensitive species such as Washington hawthorn require both root and shoot protection during storage and at transplanting to minimize water loss. / Ph. D.

The Penman-Monteith (PM) equation is a state-of-the-art modelling approach to simulate evapotranspiration (ET) at site and local scale. However, its practical application is often restricted by the availability and quality of required parameters. One of these parameters is the canopy conductance. Long term measurements of evapotranspiration by the eddy-covariance method provide an improved data basis to determine this parameter by inverse modelling. Because this approach may also include evaporation from the soil, not only the ‘actual’ canopy conductance but the whole surface conductance (gc) is addressed. Two full cycles of crop rotation with five different crop types (winter barley, winter rape seed, winter wheat, silage maize, and spring barley) have been continuously monitored for 10 years. These data form the basis for this study. As estimates of gc are obtained on basis of measurements, we investigated the impact of measurements uncertainties on obtained values of gc. Here, two different foci were inspected more in detail. Firstly, the effect of the energy balance closure gap (EBCG) on obtained values of gc was analysed. Secondly, the common hydrological practice to use vegetation height (hc) to determine the period of highest plant activity (i.e., times with maximum gc concerning CO2-exchange and transpiration) was critically reviewed. The results showed that hc and gc do only agree at the beginning of the growing season but increasingly differ during the rest of the growing season. Thus, the utilisation of hc as a proxy to assess maximum gc (gc,max) can lead to inaccurate estimates of gc,max which in turn can cause serious shortcomings in simulated ET. The light use efficiency (LUE) is superior to hc as a proxy to determine periods with maximum gc. Based on this proxy, crop specific estimates of gc,maxcould be determined for the first (and the second) cycle of crop rotation: winter barley, 19.2 mm s−1 (16.0 mm s−1); winter rape seed, 12.3 mm s−1 (13.1 mm s−1); winter wheat, 16.5 mm s−1 (11.2 mm s−1); silage maize, 7.4 mm s−1 (8.5 mm s−1); and spring barley, 7.0 mm s−1 (6.2 mm s−1).

From the Proceedings of the 1977 Meetings of the Arizona Section - American Water Resources Assn. and the Hydrology Section - Arizona Academy of Science - April 15-16, 1977, Las Vegas, Nevada / Transpiration rates (T) of riparian phreatophytes can be high. Antitranspirant (AT) sprays can curtail T without the ecological imbalance made by eradication. Saltcedar (Tamarix sp.) and cottonwood (Populus sp.) in 15-gal. drums enabled replicated trials on isolated plants or on canopies. T of isolate saltcedar plants could be 2x that of plants in a fairly dense canopy. T for a unit ground area of saltcedar varied from 2.2 (sparse -) to 15.8 (dense-stand) mm/day in July at Davis. Extrapolation of experimental T data to field sites must, therefore, be made carefully. Wax -based ATs increased foliar diffusive resistance (R), and reduced T of saltcedar and cottonwood 32-38% initially and 10% after 3 weeks. R increased naturally in the afternoon when evaporative demand was high and if soil water was low. Nocturnal T of salt cedar was 10% of day T. AT effectiveness increased with a higher ratio of day: night hours, and with lower soil water stress. Therefore, AT will be most effective on long summer days in riparian areas where ground water is available.

No description available.