Centralized wastewater treatment systems need substantial funds besides high-cost operation and maintenance programs, which could be considered unsuitable for low-income developing countries. As a solution, it becomes the trend towards on-site wastewater treatment systems (OWTs) due to its cost-effectiveness and flexibility of implementation and management. However, the keenness to implement these systems appropriately and monitor them continually is crucial to ensure that they do not impact the surrounding environment and human health. Constructed wetland is one of the on-site wastewater treatment systems. These systems are comparatively affordable alternative technology, and adequate systems for small communities, rural, and hilly areas. In the present study, two constructed wetlands as on-site wastewater treatment systems in Sakib - Jerash Governorate, Jordan, were investigated regarding systems performance, social acceptance, and cost-benefit analysis. The first system is a vertical flow constructed wetland (VCW) that has been operating since January 2020. The second system is a recirculation vertical flow constructed wetland (RVCW) that has been in operation since July 2015. The checking of the theoretical design parameter and the actual loading conditions of the septic tanks and wetlands in both systems showed that both implemented septic tanks and the wetlands are adequate and appropriate for the design goals. The wetlands’ treatment performance showed sufficient capability in organic matter removal efficiencies: Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), and Total Suspended Solids (TSS) removal efficiency. For pathogens: Total Coliform (TC) and Escherichia coli (E.coli), even though the removal efficiency was high, the effluents' values exceeded the local directive. Concerning nutrients removal, both systems showed low nitrogen and phosphorus removal efficiencies. Some suggestions and recommendations were proposed for improving nutrients removal and pathogen removal efficiencies. These recommendations were in desludging the septic tanks, replacing the filtering media, introduce plantation or add other carbon sources to the system, and using an additional aerobic filtration unit in the wetlands’ outlets. The study showed that the Jordanian society's nonacceptance of the on-site wastewater treatment systems could be handled through full transparency, educational workshops, and public participation. The latter contributed an increased sense of ownership robustly and increased concern of responsibilities on the operational and maintenance matters. Regarding the cost-benefit analysis, the study results demonstrated that the implementation of a constructed wetland as an on-site wastewater treatment system could be a beneficial and valuable alternative for clusters in rural areas and even in newly urbanized plans. The promising method for the treated wastewater's disinfection using clay minerals needs further investigation to determine the optimum clay mineral concentration on treatment and the needed time for exposure. / För att täcka centraliserade avloppsreningssystems drift och underhåll är det kapitalinsättningen av stor betydelse, förutom högkostnadsprogram, något som anses vara olämpligt för låginkomstländer. In-situ avloppsreningssystem verkar vara en lovande lösning till detta. För att dock säkerställa att dessa ej belastar den omgivande miljö och fungerar som det skall i förbehåll att dessa ständigt övervakas. Konstruerade våtmarker är en typ av in-situ vattenreningsteknik. Dessa system är lämpliga för småstäder, bergiga och tätortsområden. Dessa system är kostnadseffektiva och flexibla vad dess implementering och hantering anbelangar. Två dylika system är i fokus av denna studie, nämligen två konstruerade våtmarker i Sakib - Jerash i Jordanien och i synnerhet utforskas dess prestanda, social acceptans i och dessutom utfördes en nyttokostnadsanalys. Båda våtmarkerna i denna rapport har konstruerats med ett vertikalt markflöde och är i drift sedan januari 2020 och juli 2015 respektive. Dessa två system ger goda reduktioner med avseende på biokemiskt syrebehov och kemiskt syrebehov (BOD, COD), totalt suspenderat material (TSS), och effektivitet rörande patogen borttagning (TC och E. coli). Även om patogen borttagningseffektivitet i sig var hög förblev patogenhalt hög i det lokala direktivs avseende; de lokala förutsättningarna, nämligen designparameter och belastningsförhållanden, tillåter dock uppbyggande och drift av dessa två systemen som i fokus i detta studium. Beträffande borttagning av näringsämnen visade det sig att båda systemen har låg kväve- och fosforborttagningseffektivitet. Vissa förslag och rekommendationer föreslogs för att förbättra näringsämnen samt systemens effektivitet vad gäller patogenborttagning; i synnerhet dessa förslag beträffar pumpa ut slammet ur septiktanken, utbyte och backspolning av vattenfiltermedia, vattenväxterinförande eller tillägg av en extern kolkälla samt användning av en ytterligare aerobfiltreringsenhet vid utlopp. Det visade sig att det jordanska samhälle sätter käppar i hjulet vad gäller implementering av dessa våtmarker emedan dess förfarande är oacceptabelt. Dylika problem kan överbryggas genom full insyn, föredrag och workshops samt allmänhetens deltagande. Det sistnämnda gav upphov till en ökad känsla av äganderätt robust, något som ledde till ökat intresse för ansvar i drifts- och underhållsfrågor. Vad nyttokostnadsanalysen anbelangar visade det sig att implementering av ett dylikt system skulle vara fördelaktigt och värdefullt som alternativ för kluster på tätorts- och landsbygdsområden. Avloppsvattenbehandlingen med lermineraler verkar hittills vara en lovande metod vid betraktande av tidigare studier. Det behöver dock göras ytterligare undersökningar för avloppsvattenbehandlingen med lermineraler vid bestämmande av den optimala lermineral koncentration och dess exponeringstid.

Rapid urbanization has led to the generation of enormous wastewater after independence. The domestic wastewater generated in municipalities is rich in nutrients such as carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus along with other ions. The generated wastewater due to lack of adequate appropriate infrastructure including low treatment efficiencies are either untreated or partially treated and are let into water bodies. Present sewage treatment plants (STP’s) in the city are either under capacity or malfunctioning and hence are unable to meet the growing demand of burgeoning urban population. Water bodies have the ability to uptake nutrients (remediation by algae, bacteria, macrophytes) provided the wastewater inflow does not exceed the threshold. However, the sustained flow of wastewater beyond the water body’s treatment ability has led to the serious problem of nutrient enrichment in surface water bodies which is evident from algal bloom and profuse growth of invasive exotic macrophytes. This necessitates cost effective environmentally sound treatment options. The current research focuses on the characterisation of domestic wastewater fed ponds/lakes, understanding of nutrient regimes in wastewaters, pond dynamics, nutrient transformation and resource recovery. This has aided in devising an algae based treatment system for Bangalore city. The interplay between various biotic and abiotic factors governs water quality in a water body. Regular monitoring helps in characterisation of the water body and also helps in identifying the sources of external input (if any) to the system. Wastewater generated in urban localities in India, due to lack of adequate appropriate infrastructure including low treatment efficiencies are untreated or partially treated and are let into water bodies. Understanding the nature of the wastewater flow regimes and the turnover of biota with prevalent nutrient conditions is required to design treatment systems. Treatment involves breakdown of complex organism forms into simpler forms and transformations of organic nutrients into inorganic forms that are finally absorbed and assimilated by microbes as algae and bacteria. In wastewater fed urban pond systems, an array of microphytes as well as macrophytes grow and help in nutrient cycling in the system and still manage to remove nutrients to satisfactory levels. However, sustained inflow of wastewater with high nutrients results in the deterioration of the system as nutrient input exceed the supportive and assimilative capability resulting in proliferation of macrophytes, algal blooms, froth formations rendering the system anoxic that results in the loss of functional abilities of the urban pond systems. This biota in the system plays a major role in nutrient removal and recycles. Understanding the nutrient cycling aspects of urban wastewater fed systems is essential to find out the key players in treatment and for devising a sustainable treatment option with resource recovery. The review of wastewater generation, treatment systems highlight shortfall of the treatment systems and need for sustainable treatment for removal and recovery of nutrients such as C, N and P. Characterisation of Varthur water body (spatial extent 220 ha) located in the south of Bangalore city has been done through monthly monitoring for 18 months with the analyses of physico-chemical and biological. The analysis showed BOD removal of 70% (filterable) when the lake functioned as an anaerobic–aerobic lagoon for 6 months at an estimated residence time of 5 days. During this period, the biota of the lake, especially primary producers such as algae, treat the water through remediation of nutrients to nearly standard water quality levels. However, the growth and spread of invasive exotic macrophytes such as water hyacinth rendered the lake anaerobic which reduces its ability (due to absence of low algae) to treat the water. This highlights the role of algae especially Chlorophycean members as Chlorococcum sp., Chlorella sp. and Monoraphidium sp. in treating urban domestic wastewater and the scope for introducing algal ponds/lagoons to treat wastewater treatment and it may be used in a larger number of small towns to enable local reuse of water. The entire pond systems comprises of various components that are deeply affected by the biotic and abiotic factors in the system. Hence, studies on major biotic components were conducted especially on algae and macrophytes and the impact of abiotic factors as wind, light, and precipitation with seasonality’s. The diurnal and spatio-temporal variations in the dissolved oxygen as well other treatment parameters were used for zonation through multivariate analysis. Physico-chemical parameters confirm the nutrient enrichment (high Amm.-N) in the water body due to the sustained inflow of wastewater. High levels of nutrients together with BOD have resulted in the lower DO levels affecting the biological life. Study on biota revealed macrophytes altering the photosynthetic regime in the algae in water bodies thus, creating anoxia and nutrient re-suspension. The multivariate analysis showed three distinct zones (clusters) on the basis of physico-chemical variables and nutrient concentrations in the lake. The sedimentary C and N analysis showed a steady increase in the C: N ratio as a function of residence time. Importance of the various sub-systems in the water body in terms of nutrient uptake and accumulation showed algal systems to be efficient. C budgeting accounted to ~ 7 t/d i.e. ~2574 t/y, indicated that the lake is an accumulator of C. An estimated relatively high gas emission across the water/air interface (17 t/d) to carbon burial into sediments (2.3 t/d) further indicates very high emissions compared to sedimentation showing the dominance of internal C cycles. The overall mass balance, gas exchange and carbon burial balance showed Varthur water body as a major emitter of C due to high primary production, substantive allochthonous carbon inputs and intensive anthropogenic activities in the water body. Gaseous carbon emission accounted for 28 % of the total Influx C. The spatial profile of N in sediment ranged from 2280-3539 mg/kg of sediment dry mass. Very low value of N:P ratio in sediments suggested possible N limitation. The determination of ammonification and nitrification showed lower nitrification rates than the ammonification rates. The potentially mineralisable nitrogen content in Varthur pond sediments varied greatly from 21.65% to 75.54% and was strongly correlated (r2=0.85) to sedimentary TN. N budgeting showed NH4-N as the predominant Nr form for microbial uptake and is the major mechanism for nitrogen removal, followed by the sedimentation process. Bacterial biomass, algal biomass and macrophyte biomass accounted for 14, 4 and 1% N removal, respectively. Ammonium concentration and nitrification accounted for 27% and 2%, respectively. While bacterial uptake remained fairly constant throughout the year, micro-algae was the major player during monsoon and winter and macrophytes dominated Nr capture during summer among autotrophs. From the estimates, it has been observed that nearly 55% Nr was recovered, recycled as cell mass and transferred to a crop system when such N-captured water is used for irrigating fodder crops. About 45% of N input into the system was lost and methods to reduce this loss need to be evolved in the future. The spatial profile of P in sediment ranged from 2111.35-3982.03 mg/kg of sediment dry mass. Inorganic-P (IP) ranging from 1270.27-3505.73 mg/kg was found to be the major fraction (61.16-91.56%) of sedimentary P. High p values in both water columns and sediments showed potential P excess conditions. P concentrations in micro and macro-algae collected during the due course of the study (on dry biomass basis) were 0.347% and 0.939% P respectively. The P fractionation revealed metal oxide bound P (NaOH-P) and constituted major fraction of IP indicating, high concentrations of Fe and Al in sediments. High concentrations of sedimentary N and P indicated possible higher trophic status (bio-productivity/unit volume) signifying its towering nutrient status evidenced from the rank order of P fractions: NaOH-P > HCl-P > NH4Cl-P, which is specific for highly enriched water bodies. P budgeting showed that bulk of the P is trapped in sediment layer with a potential of ~50 % recovery from the sediments indicating, ~70% P retention within the system. The biotic components such as bacteria, algae and macrophytes accumulates a substantial amount of P, immobilising ~139, ~482 and ~131 tonness/yr of P. The sequential P extraction shows that ~70 % of sediment bound P is readily reducible during anoxic conditions which can potentially become bio-available to trigger algal growth. Assessment of treatment efficiency of facultative algal ponds, showed moderate treatment levels with 60 % total COD removal, 50% of filterable COD removal; 82% of total BOD removal and 70% of filterable BOD removal. The N removal efficiency was lower. However, a rapid decrease in the suspended solids after a faster euglenoids growth indicated particulate C removal by algal ingestion. Euglenoides dominated the facultative pond and Chlorophycean members were more abundant in the maturation ponds owing to variable surface BOD loadings. Significant correlations between algal biomass and nutrients indicate the importance of the type and nature of algal communities that can be used as an efficient tool for predicting the dynamics of various phases in wastewater treatment systems. Detailed morphological analysis of dominant algal species i.e. euglenoides was also performed. Euglenophycean members (>14 species) sampled from various locations in the facultative pond based system showed various striae patterns and distinct nano channels on the cell surface that might have possible role in cell secretions. Comparative assessment of treatment systems reveal that algal pond systems performed well under higher organic load with a COD removal efficiency of 70%, TN removal efficiency of 73% and TP removal efficiency of 22%. However, the facultative pond based systems were effective in suspended solid (SS) removal up to 93% and BOD removal up to 82%. The conventional wastewater treatment systems were efficient in terms of SS removal up to 88%, COD removal up to 74% and BOD removal up to 63%, but were highly ineffective in nutrient removal. The evaluation of treatment processes in mechanically aerated systems, facultative ponds and large shallow lake based systems in terms of capital and annual O&M costs, COD removal cost and land requirements reveals that the mechanical systems require 5 times more capital and O&M costs than ponds. The treatment systems were also ranked in terms of the total annual cost (e.g., capital, manpower, chemical, repair, electricity, land). It showed that algal pond systems followed by facultative pond based system are economically better choice than mechanical technologies. Finally, it was found that the large pond based systems could be economically the best option for the developing countries considering all factors, including economic viability and treatment efficiency. The treatment efficiency analysis showed that algal pond systems were the most effective options for treating urban wastewater. Culturing native wastewater species in growth media and wastewaters, assessment of efficient cell disruption and solvent systems, lipid profiles of wastewater algal species were studied. Wastewater grown algal species as Euglena sp., Spirogyra sp., Phormidium sp., Lepocinclis ovum, and Chlorococcum sp. are comparatively rich in lipids. These algae grow mixotrophically and can store substantial amount of wastewater carbon as TAG’s in varied environments. Among the different cell disruption methods used for the study, sonication was the most effective. The combination of maceration and methanol: chloroform: water (2:1:0.8, v/v) (Bligh and Dyer’s, solvent) gave highest lipid extraction yield among other combinations. Further more these wastewater algae as Lepocinclis ovum and Chlorococcum sp. were found to grow better in wastewaters. Increased lipid content was recorded during the cell cultures with accumulation of quality FAME with high saturates predominated by C16-C18 fatty acids. These wastewater algal lipids are suitable for bio-energy generation with potential biomass productivity (6.52 t/ha/yr) of wastewater-grown species as Euglena. The studies on Euglena sp. showed mixotrophic mode that offers an efficient removal of TOC, N and P from domestic wastewater without any pre-treatment. Lipid profiles of the extracted algal oil were similar to the vegetative feedstock oils, indicating a good quality fuel for energy generation. Mixed algal consortia’s bioremediation potential (removal of nutrients) with the scope for biofuel production highlights self flocculating abilities of algal consortia aided in the effective treatment of wastewater with substantial algal harvest. Studies on cultivating wastewater algal consortia in novel cascading algal parcel flow reactor (CAPFR) operating in continuous mode showed 70-80 % nutrient and ~90 % C removal with in a residence time of ~4 days with highest cell densities (0.91 g/l) and productivities (0.26 g/l/d) in the last stages. The lipid contents varied from 26-28 % with highest lipid productivities ~58 mg/l/d in the 2nd phase of the bioreactor. Most of the lipids were associated with the pigments as chlorophyll and carotenoids. Furthermore, the algal rector removed bacteria up to 4 log orders. Essential cations and phosphates were responsible for self clumping of algal biomass in the final stages with a high internal P content within the cell. The algal biomass also showed substantial exothermic peaks and high heat values (~18 MJ/kg). Studies on continuous cultivation of Dictyosphaerium sp. showed that this species could adapt to wastewater conditions and also showed good nutrient removal at lower HRT (2.5 days). The high biomass productivities with high lipid content (~36%) at low HRT in the continuous mode offer potential options for economic and feasible nutrient removal with biofuel production. Investigations on city wastewaters showed low nutrient ratio indicating C limitations and possible scope for algal wastewater treatment. Integration of algal ponds in the present treatment network requires an additional land ranging from ~0.37 to 2.75 ha to treat an MLD of wastewater depending on the nutrient content and influent waters fed to algal systems. The treatment plants require an additional ~1.6 ha of land to treat 1 MLD of wastewater considering an average N and P values of 18 and 5 mg/l. The continuous algal bio-processes implemented at decentralised levels would help in the economical ways for nutrient removal and recycling of the nutrient free waters after treatment. This meets multiple objectives of low cost treatment of wastewater, nutrient recovery and fuel production. Algal nutrient capture and consequent biofuel production would ensure sustainability through i) water purification ii) nutrients capture and iii) biofuel to meet the growing energy demand, and would be an optimal treatment option for urban wastewater. The thesis consists of 10 chapters and basically deals with the development of a sustainable and economically viable bioprocess for wastewater treatment and biomass production. Chapter 1 provides a brief introduction to wastewater; domestic wastewater composition, generation and treatment in developing nations and in the country and review of the various techniques for treatment of domestic wastewaters, advantages of algal processes in nutrient removal (C, N and P) and production of valued by-product such as lipid generation, for its use as biofuel. Chapter 2 is based on primary field investigations in a wastewater fed urban water body/pond systems involving monthly sampling and analysis of various physico-chemical and biological parameters. Assessment of treatment capabilities of the continuous systems through detailed characterisation of treatment parameters is explained in the second chapter. Chapter 3 discusses the role of the major biotic (algae and macrophytes) and abiotic factors in nutrient transformations, the diurnal variations in parameters especially dissolved oxygen, multivariate spatio-temporal analysis of functional abilities for zoning, the activities in the sludge/sediment and transitions in the CN ratio as a function of residence time. Chapter 4 involves studies in C, N and P quantification and budgeting in such pond systems and partitioning of the nutrients and their distribution in various biotic and abiotic subsystems. This chapter also highlights the major nutrient losses from the system and un-utilised nutrient stocks, paving way for beneficial use of nutrients from such man made lagoon wastewater systems. Chapter 5 discusses the mechanisms and efficacies of algal pond based treatment systems through a detailed study and highlight its advantages over the mechanical ASP based systems. This has been done through a comparative assessment of treatment efficiency, economics and environmental externalities. This study also provides necessary insights and potential of wastewater algal species such as Euglena for its abilities in nutrient removal and biomass generation. This provides insights to algal treatment options for optimal resource recovery and utilisation from wastewaters. Chapter 6 focuses on testing the growth, biomass and lipid production of various wastewater algae isolated from treatment ponds. The chapter identifies suitable cell disruption and extraction routes for efficient lipid extraction and assesses the potential of these wastewater grown algae for regional and national biofuel production. Chapter 7 discusses the effectiveness of wastewater grown Euglena sp. and algal consortia in nutrient removal and as a source of lipids for biofuel generation. Chapter 8 involves the design and operation of a continuous algal (uni-algal/algal consortia) bioreactor devised taking insights from earlier field based studies and their potential as efficient urban wastewater treatment systems. Chapter 9 discusses the present nutrient levels in the city wastewaters and also an analysis of the temporal and spatial variation of nutrients in city sewers and elaborates the scope for integration of the algal modules i.e. continuous algal bioreactors (designed in the previous chapter) into existing STP’s. Chapter 10 elaborates significant contributions and outcome of the research.

No Brasil, existem milhares de sistemas de tratamento de água, que devem atender à critérios amplos de qualidade, que possibilite atender padrões e legislação pertinentes ao tipo de processo produtivo: antes, durante e após o processo. O Sistemas de Tratamento de Água (SiTA) engloba o manancial de abastecimento, seu entorno, a captação e adução de água bruta, a Estação de Tratamento de Água (ETA), a água tratada, o sistema de gestão, a Estação de Tratamento de Resíduos (ETR) e os recursos humanos. No desenvolvimento desse trabalho foram realizadas visitas técnicas em cinco SiTAs, que possuem tecnologia de ciclo completo, a fim de avaliar o funcionamento destes, segundo os princípios da ecoeficiência. Para tanto, foram levantados dados atuais e históricos (10 anos), que forneceram subsídios para elaboração e aplicação de 39 indicadores, agrupados em oito princípios da ecoeficiência. Neste trabalho foi proposto também um Sistema de Gestão Ambiental (SGA) para SiTAs, que foi baseado nos preceitos da norma ISO 14.001. Os resultados desta pesquisa apontam para a necessidade de uma nova visão, do intitulado Sistema de Tratamento de Água (SiTA), para que os projetos executivos futuros considerem impreterivelmente o manancial, o entorno e os resíduos gerados durante o processo de tratamento de água. Além disso, os cinco sistemas analisados não foram considerados ecoeficientes, seja em relação ao resultados dos indicadores aplicados, aspectos gerenciais, análise qualitativa e quantitativa, ausência de dados ou ineficiência na sua sistematização. Ademais, o planejamento, estabelecimento de metas e aplicação de indicadores em diferentes sistemas são fundamentais para o estabelecimento de um parâmetro balizador, que poderá ser seguido por outros sistemas de tratamento de água. Assim, é imperiosa a necessidade da implantação de um modelo de gestão, que forneça subsídios para geração e padronização dos dados nesse tipo de sistema. / In Brazil, there are thousands of water treatment systems, which must consider wide criteria of quality, and that will make possible to meet standards and legislation relevant to the type of production process: before, during and after the process. The Water Treatment Systems (WTSy) include the water supply source, its surroundings, catchment and adduction of raw water, the Water Treatment Plant (WTP), the treated water, the management system, the Waste Treatment Plant (WTP) and human resources. In the development of this work, technical visits were made in five WTSy, which have full cycle of technology, to evaluate the functioning of them, according to the principles of ecoefficiency. For both, current and historical data were raised (10 years), which provided subsidies for development and application of 39 indicators, grouped into eight principles of ecoefficiency. In this work it was also proposed an Environmental Management System (EMS) to the WTSy, which was based on the precepts of ISO 14.001. The results of this research, point to the need of a new vision, about the entitled Water Treatment System (WTSy), so that the executive future projects consider essential to the water supply source its surroundings, and the waste generated during the water treatment. In addition, the five systems reviewed were not considered ecoefficient, in relation to the results of the indicators applied, management aspects, quantitative and qualitative analysis, absence of data or inefficiency in its systematization. Moreover, the planning, setting targets and the application of indicators in various systems are fundamental to the establishment of a balizador parameter, which could be followed by other water treatment systems. It is therefore, imperative the need of implantation of a management model which provides subsidies for generation and standardization of data in this type of system.

No Brasil, existem milhares de sistemas de tratamento de água, que devem atender à critérios amplos de qualidade, que possibilite atender padrões e legislação pertinentes ao tipo de processo produtivo: antes, durante e após o processo. O Sistemas de Tratamento de Água (SiTA) engloba o manancial de abastecimento, seu entorno, a captação e adução de água bruta, a Estação de Tratamento de Água (ETA), a água tratada, o sistema de gestão, a Estação de Tratamento de Resíduos (ETR) e os recursos humanos. No desenvolvimento desse trabalho foram realizadas visitas técnicas em cinco SiTAs, que possuem tecnologia de ciclo completo, a fim de avaliar o funcionamento destes, segundo os princípios da ecoeficiência. Para tanto, foram levantados dados atuais e históricos (10 anos), que forneceram subsídios para elaboração e aplicação de 39 indicadores, agrupados em oito princípios da ecoeficiência. Neste trabalho foi proposto também um Sistema de Gestão Ambiental (SGA) para SiTAs, que foi baseado nos preceitos da norma ISO 14.001. Os resultados desta pesquisa apontam para a necessidade de uma nova visão, do intitulado Sistema de Tratamento de Água (SiTA), para que os projetos executivos futuros considerem impreterivelmente o manancial, o entorno e os resíduos gerados durante o processo de tratamento de água. Além disso, os cinco sistemas analisados não foram considerados ecoeficientes, seja em relação ao resultados dos indicadores aplicados, aspectos gerenciais, análise qualitativa e quantitativa, ausência de dados ou ineficiência na sua sistematização. Ademais, o planejamento, estabelecimento de metas e aplicação de indicadores em diferentes sistemas são fundamentais para o estabelecimento de um parâmetro balizador, que poderá ser seguido por outros sistemas de tratamento de água. Assim, é imperiosa a necessidade da implantação de um modelo de gestão, que forneça subsídios para geração e padronização dos dados nesse tipo de sistema. / In Brazil, there are thousands of water treatment systems, which must consider wide criteria of quality, and that will make possible to meet standards and legislation relevant to the type of production process: before, during and after the process. The Water Treatment Systems (WTSy) include the water supply source, its surroundings, catchment and adduction of raw water, the Water Treatment Plant (WTP), the treated water, the management system, the Waste Treatment Plant (WTP) and human resources. In the development of this work, technical visits were made in five WTSy, which have full cycle of technology, to evaluate the functioning of them, according to the principles of ecoefficiency. For both, current and historical data were raised (10 years), which provided subsidies for development and application of 39 indicators, grouped into eight principles of ecoefficiency. In this work it was also proposed an Environmental Management System (EMS) to the WTSy, which was based on the precepts of ISO 14.001. The results of this research, point to the need of a new vision, about the entitled Water Treatment System (WTSy), so that the executive future projects consider essential to the water supply source its surroundings, and the waste generated during the water treatment. In addition, the five systems reviewed were not considered ecoefficient, in relation to the results of the indicators applied, management aspects, quantitative and qualitative analysis, absence of data or inefficiency in its systematization. Moreover, the planning, setting targets and the application of indicators in various systems are fundamental to the establishment of a balizador parameter, which could be followed by other water treatment systems. It is therefore, imperative the need of implantation of a management model which provides subsidies for generation and standardization of data in this type of system.

As a modern metropolis, Shanghai has a registered population of 18.8 million in 2011, and the permanent population has been more than 20 million. As a result, Shanghai produces more than 6.3 million cubic meters of sewage per day which is considered as a massive test for Shanghai’s sewerage treatment system. Given the high proportion of time spent on the literature review, this study has investigated how the whole system works in Shanghai. To do this, Shanghai sewerage systems were divided into two parts – the drainage system and the sewage treatment system, and they were introduced respectively following the track of history development process. It was done by combining previously published theses, study reports, governmental documents, overt information by companies and news reports. It showed that, in 2009, Shanghai’s government established a basic formation of six centralized sewage treatment systems in co-existence with 52 sewage treatment plants. In the same year, the sewage treatment rate reached 78.9%, which can be considered a leap compared with the 62.8% figure in 2003. In spite of that, the gap between sewage treatment in Shanghai and that in developed countries still exists. By comparing Shanghai Bai Longgang sewage treatment plant with Halmstad Västra Stranden's waste water treatment plant, it can be concluded that the gap was embodied in differences of inflow condition, relative low discharge standards and poor treatment capability.

The eutrophication in the Baltic Sea is a big issue which threatens marine ecosystems, increases the depletion of oxygen in the water and causes harm to aquatic animals. Human activities such as industries, agriculture, forestry and untreated sewage increase nutrient input (mainly nitrogen and phosphorus) which causes increased levels of plankton and bacteria. Sweden has suggested to prohibit recreational craft owners to discharge their untreated wastewater to the ocean. The aim for this study is to examine and analyze the different types of water treatment systems that exist today and to see what levels of bacteria and nutrients the effluent water has from the systems. This research will help the EU-commission to decide what demands you can put on the discharged effluent water on recreational crafts. The study shows that none of the existing systems is able to decrease the levels of nutrients in the effluent treated wastewater. This makes it hard for the EU-commission to decide on demands for recreational crafts. This may lead to increased use of drainstations of wastewater in harbors for owners.

This thesis discusses the development of an improved microbial inactivation model for analyzing continuous flow UV-LED air treatment systems and use of the model to evaluate the impact of several treatment system design parameters on inactivation. Model development includes three submodels: a radiation submodel, a fluid flow submodel, and an inactivation kinetics submodel. Radiation modeling defines the UV irradiance throughout the system. Fluid flow modeling provides the residence times that microbes spend exposed to the UV irradiation while passing through the system. Inactivation modeling combines irradiance and residence times with inactivation kinetics to calculate species-specific inactivation in a treatment system. The most significant development focuses on the radiation submodel as it is key to linking the UV intensity emissions to treatment system properties and inactivation rates. Various radiation transfer models previously developed by other researchers are evaluated for computational efficiency and effectiveness in modeling non-uniform LED emission and diffuse and specular wall reflections. The Discrete Ordinates Method (DOM) with Legendre-Chebyshev quadrature sets is selected for use in this research due to its ability to represent both non-uniform LED emission profiles and combined specular and diffuse surface reflection. The DOM and associated quadrature schemes are reviewed in detail and limitations in representing LED emissions discussed. Sensitivity to spatial and directional discretization is evaluated. The radiation submodel is combined with a well-accepted inactivation kinetics correlation and two simple fluid flow models: a uniform flow model and a fully-developed flow model. The use and validity of these submodels is explained and their limitations discussed. Predicted microbial inactivation from the overall model is shown to compare well with limited data from a test system. Model flexibility in evaluating several system operating and design parameters is illustrated. These analyses show that for a similar number of LEDs, highly reflective surfaces (diffuse or specular) produce higher inactivation. Other parameters are shown to impact inactivation but to a lesser degree. Square ducts result in higher inactivation than non-square ducts, a fully-developed flow profile slightly increases inactivation over a uniform flow profile, positioning LEDs on all four duct walls slightly increases inactivation when surfaces are non-reflective or diffuse, and positioning LEDs closer together results in slightly higher inactivation.

Numa unidade offshore de produção de petróleo, o gás produzido é tratado para atingir as especificações requeridas e permitir sua utilização em diferentes demandas como gás combustível, gas lift, exportação de gás ou injeção de gás. No Brasil, a Agência Nacional do Petróleo regula a produção de óleo e gás, limita a queima de gás e controla a movimentação e utilização de gás de acordo com as estimativas informadas pelo operador. Falhas no sistema de tratamento de gás levam à queima e podem causar parada de produção. A confiabilidade e disponibilidade do sistema de tratamento de gás é uma preocupação relevante. Entender as relações e influências dos vários subsistemas e equipamentos do sistema nessas medidas de desempenho pode levar a melhorias nas estratégias de manutenção que podem minimizar perdas na produção de óleo e de gás. Dentre os vários métodos de análise de confiabilidade, as redes de Petri estocásticas se destacam quando comparadas às ferramentas tradicionais como diagrama de blocos ou árvore de falhas devido a sua habilidade em modelar aspectos como dependências funcionais, lógicas e sequências. Nesse trabalho foram construídos quatro modelos utilizando redes de Petri estocásticas para analisar a disponibilidade do sistema de tratamento de gás. A facilidade de construção modelo A sugere sua utilização em etapas preliminares de projeto para validar o arranjo inicial, as quantidades de equipamentos e as configurações de redundância. O modelo B pode ser utilizado para identificar os subsistemas e equipamentos que mais contribuem para as falhas do sistema e para realizar previsões quanto aos modos de operação do sistema e índice de aproveitamento de gás. A análise de sensibilidade dos resultados de disponibilidade quanto aos dados de falha utilizados mostrou que a variação do tempo médio para reparo tem maior influência. Por meio do modelo C verificou-se que uma plataforma operando num conjunto e sujeita a restrições de importação e exportação de gás tem maior indisponibilidade e maior probabilidade de falha do que uma plataforma operando isolada. O modelo D permite concluir que a inclusão de um modo de falha ao modelo não implica em variação significativa dos resultados de confiabilidade e que nos resultados de disponibilidade a variação passa a ser significativa quando adotam-se pequenos valores de tempo médio entre falhas e grandes valores de tempo médio para reparo. A construção das redes de Petri estocásticas para o sistema completo exige uma compreensão detalhada do funcionamento do sistema em análise o que também pode ser destacado como uma vantagem das redes de Petri estocásticas, contribuindo para aquisição de conhecimento acerca do sistema e dando segurança quanto a fidelidade do modelo criado. / In an offshore oil production facility, produced gas is treated to meet the necessary specifications to allow its use in different demands, as gas fuel, as exportation gas and as injection gas. In Brazil, the National Petroleum Agency regulates oil and gas production, establishing and gas flaring limits, the utilization and distribution of gas according to the operator\'s estimations. Failures in the gas treatment system eventually can cause oil production interruptions to avoid attaining the gas flaring limits. Reliability and availability of the gas treatment system is a major concern. Understanding the relationships and influences of the various gas treatment subsystems and equipment on these performance measures may lead to design or maintenance strategies improvements that could ultimately minimize oil and gas losses in the facility. Among several modelling methods stochastic Petri nets stands out comparing to traditional reliability tools like reliability block diagrams or fault tree analysis due to its ability to model aspects such as functional dependencies, logics and sequences. In this work, four models were built using stochastic Petri nets to assess the availability of a gas treatment system. The model A is easy to build and may be used in preliminary design stages to validate the initial arrangement, equipment and redundancies. The model B may be used to identify subsystems and equipment that most contribute to system failures and to predict operation modes and efficiency in the gas utilization. The sensibility analysis of reliability data has shown a predominant influence of the mean time to repair. Using model C, it could be noticed that a platform operating in a group submitted to injection and exportation gas limits has a greater unavailability and probability of failure than an isolated operating platform. Model D allow one to conclude that including a failure mode in the model does not imply in significant variation in the reliability results and that the variation is only significant in availability when using small mean time to failure values and large mean time to repair values. The stochastic Petri nets construction for the complete system requires an accurate comprehension about the system operation what could also be mentioned as an advantage of the stochastic Petri nets.

”Rätt avlopp på rätt plats” – Livscykelanalys av tre enskilda avloppsanläggningar Problemen med övergödning i Östersjön och i Sveriges insjöar är stort och enskildaavlopp pekas ut som en central aktör, framförallt beträffande fosforutsläppen. I Sverigefinns det ungefär en miljon enskilda avloppssystem och nästan hälften av dessa har enså pass bristande vattenrening att de inte uppfyller gällande lagstiftning. Utvecklingenav nya tekniker för rening av avloppsvatten har länge strävat efter att minska utsläppenav övergödande ämnen, detta ibland på bekostnad av andra utsläpp, så somväxthusgaser och försurande ämnen.Det här examensarbetet har därför med hjälp av metodik från livscykelanalys (LCA)utvärderat tre enskilda avloppssystem med tanke på deras utsläpp av växthusgaser,försurande gaser samt övergödande ämnen. Då misstanke också fanns att de lokalaplatsegenskaperna påverkar de enskilda avloppssystemens totala miljöpåverkan,utfördes även en intervjustudie med ett antal av landets kommuner. I intervjustudiengjordes ett försök att identifiera de platsegenskaper som påverkar valet ochutformningen av de enskilda avloppssystemen. De tre avloppssystemen som ingick istudien är markbädd samt kompaktfilter i kombination med antingen ett reaktivt filtermed Polonite®, eller i kombination med kemfällning.Resultatet av studien visade att markbädden hade lägst utsläpp av både växthusgaseroch försurande gaser, men högst utsläpp av övergödande ämnen. De tvåfosforreducerande systemen uppvisade betydlig bättre potential för att reduceraövergödande ämnen, men detta på bekostnad av större utsläpp av växthusgaser ochförsurande gaser, speciellt i fallet med det reaktiva filtersystemet. Lokalaplatsegenskaper, så som näringsretention, visade sig spela en central roll för deundersökta avloppssystemens totala miljöpåverkan. I områden med hög fosforretentionunder vattnets väg till havet skulle avloppssystem med höga utsläpp av fosfor (så somdet markbaserade systemet) kunna vara försvarbara. På de platser i landet därövergödningen är problematisk finns det dock motiv för att använda fosforreducerandesystem. / "Right sewage system in the right place" - Life cycle assessment of three on-sitewastewater treatment options The problem with eutrophication in the Baltic Sea and in Swedish lakes is serious andon-site wastewater treatment systems are considered important, especially forphosphorus emissions. There exist about one million on-site wastewater treatmentsystems in Sweden and almost half of them do not meet current legislation.Development of new technologies for on-site wastewater treatment systems has for along time been focused on reducing emissions of eutrophying substances. However,there is a risk that this reduction could be achieved at the expense of other emissions,such as greenhouse gases and acidifying substances.This master thesis has therefore by use of life cycle assessment (LCA) evaluated threeon-site wastewater treatment systems considering their total emission of greenhousegases, acidifying gases and eutrophying substances. Because local site characteristicswere thought to affect the sewage systems overall environmental impact, an interviewstudy were also carried out with a number of municipal officials. The interview studywas designed to identify the local site characteristics that influence the selection anddesign of the on-site wastewater treatment systems. The three sewage systems includedin the study were a soil treatment system with surface water discharge and a compactbiological filter in combination with either a reactive filter module with Polonite®, or incombination with chemical precipitation.The results of the study reveal that the soil treatment system had the lowest emissions ofboth greenhouse gases and acidifying gases, but the largest emissions of eutrophyingsubstances. The two phosphorus reducing systems showed significantly greaterpotential to reduce the emissions of eutrophying substances, but at the expense of largeremissions of greenhouse gases and acidifying gases, especially in the case of thereactive filter system. Local site characteristics such as the retention of nutrients, provedto play a vital role in the investigated sewage systems overall environmental impact. Inareas with high retention of phosphorus sewage systems with high emissions ofphosphorus (such as the soil treatment system) where favored. However, in areas whereeutrophication is problematic, it is justified to use phosphorus reducing systems.

[pt] O transporte de petróleo e de seus derivados através do modal dutoviário é bastante comum na indústria petrolífera. O Oleoduto do Recôncavo-Sul da Bahia (ORSUB) é um poliduto que transporta diesel, gasolina e GLP do Terminal de Madre de Deus até os terminais de Jequié e Itabuna. Esses produtos são inseridos no poliduto em forma de bateladas sequênciais, o que gera as interfaces entre os produtos. Essas interfaces são segregadas e armazenadas em tanques exclusivos. A Agência Nacional de Petróleo ao longo do tempo vem restringindo cada vez mais as especificações dos produtos derivados do petróleo comercializados no país. Com isto, há a tendência natural do aumento das interfaces entre os produtos movimentados no poliduto, para a garantia de que estes atendam a legislação vigente. Estudos demonstram que os custos provenientes da geração de interfaces são altos e constituem um item importante na composição dos custos variáveis do modal dutoviário. Deste modo, reduzir o tamanho destas interfaces deve sempre ser um dos objetivos que o operador logístico responsável pela movimentação no duto deve buscar. Nesta pesquisa foram estudadas as interfaces geradas entre a gasolina e o GLP no ORSUB. Foi utilizado o software ConBate para a estimativa do tamanho da interface e o simulador de processos Petrox, para estimar a qualidade da interface. Com estas duas ferramentas desenvolvidas pelo Centro de Pesquisa da Petrobras (Cenpes) foram comparadas os tamanhos das interfaces geradas nas operações reais, com os tamanhos das interfaces ideais. / [en] The transportation of oil and its derivatives through modal pipeline is quite common in the oil industry. The pipeline Recôncavo-Sul Bahia (ORSUB) is an oil pipeline that transports gas oil, gasoline and LPG from Terminal Madre de Deus to the terminals Jequié and Itabuna. These products are inserted into the oil pipeline in the form of batches, which generates the interfaces (transmix) between products. These transmix are segregated and stored in dedicated tanks. Over time, The National Petroleum Agency (ANP) is increasingly restricting the specifications of petroleum products sold in the country. With this, there is the natural tendency of increased interfaces between the products moved in pipeline, to ensure that they meet current legislation. Studies show that the costs arising from the generation of interfaces are high and constitute an important item in the cost composition variables modal pipeline. Thus, reducing the size of these interfaces should always be a goal that the logistics operator responsible for moving the product should look. In this research we studied the interfaces generated between gasoline and LPG in ORSUB. ConBate software was used to estimate the size of the interface and process simulator Petrox to estimate the quality of transmix. With these two tools sizes of the interfaces generated in actual operations and the sizes of the interfaces ideal were compared.