Our paleotsunami surveys of the southern Java coast led to the discovery of five imbricate coastal boulder fields near Pacitan, Indonesia that may date to the mid-to-late 19th century or prior and two similar fields at Pantai Papuma and Pantai Pasir Putih that were tsunami-emplaced during the 1994 7.9 Mw event in East Java. Estimated ages for the fields near Pacitan are based on historical records and radiocarbon analyses of coral boulders. The largest imbricated boulders in fields near Pacitan and in East Java are similar in size (approximately 3 m^3) and are primarily composed of platy beachrock dislodged from the intertidal platform during one or several unusually powerful wave impactions. Hydrodynamic wave height reconstructions of the accumulations near Pacitan indicate the boulders were likely tsunami rather than storm-wave emplaced, as the size of the storm waves needed to do so is not viable. We evaluate the boulders as an inverse problem, using their reconstructed wave heights and ComMIT tsunami modeling to suggest a minimum 8.4 Mw earthquake necessary to dislodge and emplace the largest boulders near Pacitan assuming they were all deposited during the same tsunami event and that the rupture source was located along the Java Trench south of Pacitan. A combined analysis of historical records of Java earthquakes and plate motion measurements indicates a seismic gap with >25 m of slip deficit along the Java Trench. A 1000-1500 km rupture along the subduction interface of this segment is capable of producing a 9.0-9.3 Mw megathrust earthquake and a giant tsunami. However, evidence for past megathrust earthquake events along the this trench remains elusive. We use epicenter independent tsunami modelling to estimate wave heights and inundation along East Java in the event that the trench were to fully rupture. By translocating ComMIT slip parameters of Japan's 2011 9.1 Mw event along the trench offshore East Java, we demonstrate possible wave heights in excess of 20 m at various locations along its southern coasts. Approximately 300,000-500,000 people in low-lying coastal communities on the southern coasts of East Java could be directly affected. We recommend at-risk communities practice the "20/20/20 principle" of tsunami hazard awareness and evacuation.

Chemical mechanical polishing (CMP) has been used for a long time in the manufacturing of prime silicon wafers for the IC industry. Lately, other substrates, such as silicon-on-insulator has become in use which requires a greater control of the silicon CMP process. CMP is used to planarize oxide interlevel dielectric and to remove excessive tungsten after plug filling in the Al interconnection technology. In Cu interconnection technology, the plugs and wiring are filled in one step and excessive Cu is removed by CMP. In front end processing, CMP is used to realize shallow trench isolation (STI), to planarize trench capacitors in dynamic random access memories (DRAM) and in novel gate concepts. This thesis is focused on CMP for front end processing, which is the processing on the device level and the starting material. The effects of dopants, crystal orientation and process parameters on silicon removal rate are investigated. CMP and silicon wafer bonding is investigated. Also, plasma assisted wafer bonding to form InP MOS structures is investigated. A complexity of using STI in bipolar and BiCMOS processes is the integration of STI with deep trench isolation (DTI). A process module to realize STI/DTI, which introduces a poly CMP step to planarize the deep trench filling, is presented. Another investigated front end application is to remove the overgrowth in selectively epitaxially grown collector for a SiGe heterojunction bipolar transistor. CMP is also investigated for rounding, which could be beneficial for stress reduction or to create microoptical devices, using a pad softer than pads used for planarization. An issue in CMP for planarization is glazing of the pad, which results in a decrease in removal rate. To retain a stable removal rate, the pad needs to be conditioned. This thesis introduces a geometrically defined abrasive surface for pad conditioning.

Este trabalho tem como objetivos avaliar, para eventos de chuvas simuladas, o comportamento hidráulico de uma trincheira de infiltração experimental instalada na EESC/USP e propor uma nova metodologia de dimensionamento para trincheiras de infiltração. Para realizar a avaliação, foram conduzidos ensaios experimentais para determinar o volume infiltrado, sendo este calculado pela diferença entre o volume de entrada, medido através de vertedor triangular, e o volume armazenado na trincheira, medido a partir de medidor de nível. Em relação à nova metodologia de dimensionamento, esta foi proposta com base no modelo de Green-Ampt adaptado ao processo de infiltração horizontal. Os parâmetros de entrada do modelo: umidade, potencial matricial e condutividade hidráulica saturada, foram determinados, respectivamente, através de sondas que utilizam a Reflectometria no Domínio do Tempo (TDR), por curvas de retenção determinadas em laboratório pela técnica do papel filtro e câmara de Richards e por ensaio laboratorial com permeâmetro de carga constante. As curvas de retenção além de serem determinadas por dois métodos laboratoriais também foram avaliadas em função da distribuição uni e bimodal do tamanho médio dos poros. Para isto, utilizou-se a tomografia computadorizada para analisar o comportamento dos poros no solo estudado. O solo onde foi instalada a trincheira constitui-se de areia média a fina argilosa e apresenta a condutividade hidráulica saturada em torno de 9,06.\'10 POT.-6\' m/s. A câmara de Richards foi o método de determinação da curva de retenção que melhor caracterizou o solo quanto à sua porosidade. Os resultados demonstraram que a trincheira de infiltração é eficiente, controlando 100% do volume escoado, mesmo para chuvas com intensidades superiores aos projetos de microdrenagem. Verificou-se também que o modelo de Green-Ampt se ajusta bem ao processo de infiltração horizontal e que a metodologia de dimensionamento proposta contribui de forma eficiente e economicamente eficaz para o dimensionamento de dispositivos de infiltração. / This work assessed the hydraulic behavior of a experimental infiltration trench built at the EESC/USP and proposed a new sizing methodology for infiltration trench, for simulated events. In order to evaluate the hydraulic behavior experimental tests were taken to determine the infiltrated volume. The infiltrated volume was calculated through the difference between the entry volume, obtained by triangular weir, and the volume stored in the trench, determined by level meter. The sizing methodology proposed was based on Green-Ampt model adapted to horizontal infiltration process. The model parameters: water content, pressure head and saturated hydraulic conductivity were determined by Time Domain Reflectometer, retention curve and constant head permeameter, respectively. Retention curves were determined applying two laboratorial methods: Richards camara and filter-paper method, and were evaluate by the unimodal and bimodal distributions of the medium size of the pores. Tomography computerized was used to analyze the behavior of the soil pores. Infiltration trench was installed in a sand soil which presents the saturated hydraulic conductivity around 9,06.\'10 POT.-6\' m/s. The Richards\'s camera was the method that better represented the soil porosity. The results proved the efficiency of the infiltration trench, which controlled 100% of the runoff, even for events with intensities greater than drainage systems design storms. It was also verified that Green-Ampt model has good adjustments to horizontal infiltration process and the sizing methodology proposed is efficient for sizing of infiltration dispositive.

Este trabalho apresenta resultados de ensaios laboratoriais e de análises paramétricas, realizadas através do método dos elementos finitos, para a avaliação do comportamento do geocomposto MacDrain 2S quando utilizado como elemento compressível na técnica da trincheira induzida para redução de tensões sobre estruturas enterradas. Mostra-se que este geocomposto fabricado pela Maccaferri América Latina, que tradicionalmente é aplicado em obras de drenagem, apresentou ótimo desempenho para o fim proposto, proporcionando redução de tensões sobre o conduto de até 85,5%. Mostra-se ainda que a utilização de uma camada de geotêxtil sobre o elemento compressível não implica em grandes benefícios de desempenho, o que torna sua utilização descartável. Os resultados experimentais, refinados através das análises numéricas, mostraram que a camada indutora deve ser posicionada o mais próximo possível do conduto, sendo que o número de camadas da inclusão pouco influencia na eficiência do sistema. Valores adequados de larguras das inclusões devem se situar numa faixa entre 2 e 2,5 vezes a distância entre a inclusão e o topo do conduto / This work presents results of laboratory tests and parametric analyses using the finite element method to evaluate the behavior of the MacDrain 2S geocomposite when used as compressible layer of the induced trench method to reduce vertical earth stress on buried structures. The analyses showed that this geocomposite, manufactured by Maccaferri América Latina, that traditionally is applied in drainage works, presented excellent behavior, providing stress reduction up to 85,5%. The results showed that the use of a geotextile layer located over the compressible element did not show a performance, what turns it dispensable. The experimental results, confirmed by the numeric analyses, showed that the compressible layer must be located as near as possible to the culvert crown, and the number of inclusion did not play important role on the system performance. Appropriate values of inclusion width must be situated between 2 and 2,5 times the distance between the geocomposite and the top of the conduit

Este trabalho apresenta o desenvolvimento de uma técnica construtiva inédita para dutos enterrados intitulada Geovala. Esta técnica consiste na instalação de um geossintético sobre uma vala, preenchida ou não com material fofo, localizado acima do duto com o principal objetivo de reduzir os esforços que atingem a estrutura. Para contribuir na avaliação do sistema proposto foi realizado um programa de ensaios em pequenas e grandes dimensões no laboratório de geossintéticos da Escola de Engenharia de São Carlos EESC/USP. Neste programa de ensaios foi possível verificar que o sistema Geovala pode reduzir drasticamente as tensões na parede do duto e na envoltória de solo ao redor do duto. Além disso, um método analítico foi proposto para prever os deslocamentos verticais, deformações e esforços de tração gerados no geotêxtil, durante o rocesso construtivo e sobrecarga. Finalmente, verificou-se que os deslocamentos do geotêxtil previstos pelo método foram similares aos deslocamentos registrados nos ensaios experimentais. / This thesis presents the development of an unpublished constructive technique for buried pipes entitled Geovala. This technique comprises of the installation of a geosynthetic over a trench, filled or not with soft material, located above the pipe with the main objective of reducing the loads on the structure. To evaluate the proposed technique small and large scale testing programs were carried out at the laboratory of geosynthetics of the School of Engineering at Sao Carlos EESC/USP. In this testing program it was possible to verify that the Geovala system can reduce drastically the loads on the walls of the pipe and in the surrounding soil. Besides, an analytical method was proposed to predict the vertical displacement, deformations and tensile stress on the geosynthetic, during the constructive process and surcharge. Finally, it was verified that the displacements of the geotextile predicted by the analytical method were similar to the displacements recorded in the experimental tests.

Subduction zone megathrusts produce the majority of the world's largest earthquakes. To understand the processes that control seismicity here, it is important to improve our knowledge on the subduction interface characteristics and its spatial variations. Nicoya Peninsula, Costa Rica, extends the continental landmass ~50 km towards the trench, making it a very suitable place to study interface activity from right on the top of the seismogenic zone of the Middle America Subduction Zone (MASZ). We contribute to and utilize an earthquake catalog of 8765 analyst-picked events to determine the spatial variability in the earthquake frequency-magnitude distribution (FMD) in this region. After initial detection, magnitude determination and location, the events are precisely relocated using a locally derived 3-D seismic compressional and shear wave velocity model (DeShon et al., 2006). After restricting the dataset to events nearest the interface and with low formal error (horizontal location error < 5 km), we retain a subset of 3226 events that best resolves interface activity. Beneath Nicoya, we determine the spatial variability and mean FMD of the interface, and focus on the relative relationship of small-to-large earthquakes, termed b-value. Across the region, the overall b-value (1.18 ± 0.04) is higher than the global average (b~1), and much larger than the global subduction zone average (b~0.6). Significant variation in b-value is observed along the active plate interface. A well resolved zone of lower b is observed at and offshore central Nicoya coast, in a previously determined locked patch using deformation observed from Global Positioning System (GPS). Conversely, high b-values prevail over the subducted portion of the Fisher ridge, which likely ruptured in the 1990 Gulf of Nicoya Mw 7.0 earthquake. Observed regions of low b-value approximately corresponds to more strongly-locked segments of the subduction interface resulting in higher differential stress, which may be released in the next large interface earthquake in this part of the MASZ. Across the region the b-value is found to vary inversely with the degree of interface locking. Thus, it is proposed that if sufficient data exist, spatial b-value mapping can be used as a proxy to determine interface locking. This method is especially useful along the subduction megathrust, which is generally offshore making geodetic measurements difficult.

Abstract Compared with the other micro acoustic wave devices, the flexural plate-wave (FPW) device is more suitable for being used in liquid-sensing applications due to its higher mass sensitivity, lower phase velocity and lower operation frequency. However, conventional FPW devices usually present a high insertion loss and low fabrication yield. To reduce the insertion loss and enhance the fabrication yield of FPW device, a 1.5 £gm-thick silicon-trench reflective grating structure (RGS), a high electromechanical coupling coefficient ZnO thin-film and a 5 £gm-thick silicon oxide membrane substrate are adopted in this research. The influences of the amount of silicon trench and the distance between inter-digital transducer (IDT) and RGS on the insertion loss and quality factor of FPW device are investigated. The main fabrication technology adopted in the study is bulk micromachining technology and the main fabrication steps include six thin-film deposition and five photolithography processes. Under the optimized conditions of the sputtering deposition processes (200¢J substrate temperature, 200 W radio-frequency power and 75% gas flow ratio), a high C-axis (002) orientation ZnO piezoelectric thin-film with 31.33% electromechanical coupling coefficient can be demonstrated. The peak of XRD intensity of the standard ZnO film occurs at diffraction angle 2£c = 34.422¢X, which matches well with our results (2£c = 34.282¢X). By controlling the thickness of ZnO/Au/Cr/SiO2/Si3N4 sensing membrane less than 6.5 £gm-thick, the fabrication yield of FPW device can be improved and a low operation frequency (6.286 MHz) and high mass sensitivity (-113.63 cm2 / g) can be achieved. In addition, as the implemented FPW device with four silicon trenches RGS and 37.5 £gm distance between IDT and RGS, a low insertion loss (-40.854 dB) and very high quality factor (Q=206) can be obtained. Keywords¡Gflexural plate-wave; silicon-trench reflective grating structure; electromechanical coupling coefficient; ZnO; bulk micromachining technology

This study was conducted to ascertain the impacts of bed leveling, following ship channel dredging operations, and to also investigate the hydrodynamic flow field around box bed levelers. Laboratory experiments were conducted with bed levelers operating in the laboratory using video cameras for flow visualization. Computer software and numerical codes, called FANS, were used to validate the laboratory experiments. The study was split into two major parts: laboratory experiments and hydrodynamic modeling. The laboratory experiment was conducted to model how bed levelers interact with the ship channel bottom after hopper dredge dragheads (blades) made passes and created uneven trenches. These interactions were observed using both underwater and hand-held cameras. The hydrodynamic modeling was accomplished using GRIDGEN and PEGSUS commercial software for generating grid and input data files in the pre-processing phase, Finite-Analytic Navier-Stokes (FANS) software for simulation in the processing phase, and two commercial software (Fieldview and Tecplot) for plotting the images and graphs in the post-processing phase. An interesting phenomenon was observed in the laboratory experimental runs. The flow field showed reversed flow in front of the moving bed leveler and the trench parallel to the direction of the bed leveler. The flow in the parallel trench was observed to be in the same direction as the bed leveler movement, and it was expected that the flow would travel under the bed leveler. The bed leveler was towed at two specified constant speeds: 0.25 m/s (0.82 ft/s) and 0.5 m/s (1.64 ft/s) and at a water depth of 1.22 m (4.00 ft) Similarly, the images and plots of the hydrodynamic modeling obtained from FieldView and Tecplot software showed flow reversal, depicted by the negative velocities, within the vicinity of the trench, as the model bed leveler moved past and interacted with the fluid. The negative velocity had a magnitude close to 0.5 m/s (1.64 ft/s), which was the velocity used in running the laboratory experiments. The hydrodynamic simulation matched closely with the experimental observations, and thus, the laboratory observation was confirmed. The final results obtained from the numerical modeling helped to understand the hydrodynamic effects around the box bed leveler.

The orthodox narrative of the First World War, which maintains that the conflict was futile, unnecessary and wasteful, continues to dominate historical representations of the war. Attempts by revisionist historians to dispute this interpretation have made little impact on Britain’s collective memory of the conflict. The Christmas truce has come to represent the frustration and anger that soldiers felt towards the meaningless war they had been trapped into fighting. However, the Christmas truce, which at the time it occurred was seen as an event of minimal importance, was not an act of defiance, but one which arose from the unprecedented conditions of static trench warfare and the adaptation of the soldiers to that environment. An examination of contemporaneous accounts of the truce demonstrates that it was viewed by the soldiers involved as merely a brief holiday, and that British army commanders generally ignored or tolerated the truce, eventually releasing orders preventing its continuation or reoccurrence but taking no steps to punish any of the men who took part in it. A review of the letters and diaries of truce participants sheds light on the event itself, while simultaneously challenging the orthodox narrative of the First World War.

This study presents the dewatering assessment of a marl quarry with the future pit lake level predictions. The objectives of the study were / (1) to determine the dewatering requirements that would allow for the continuation of the quarrying operations in the deeper parts of the quarry, (2) to design an optimum dewatering system compatible with the site hydrogeological conditions and quarrying plans, (3) to assess the environmental impacts of dewatering on the local water (surface and ground water) resources and users, and (4) to predict the future pit lake level and flooding period for different meteorological conditions. To these ends, previous investigation reports and maps have been compiled and reviewed and field investigations have been conducted. During the field investigations pumping and observation wells were drilled and installed. After installation, in situ tests were conducted to determine aquifer parameters. It was found that properties of the material is conducive to the dewatering activities that will be necessary for the deepening of the open pit of the marl quarry. A groundwater model was developed based on the field data gathered. According to this model dewatering trenches will be needed to dewater the pit. The model predicted that operating these dewatering trenches would create an elongated cone of depression that will sufficiently lower the groundwater table so that quarrying operations can proceed. Lowering of the water table may produce a negative impact on groundwater resources within the aerial extent of the cone of depression. This potentially negative impact was investigated with model simulations and has been found that the impact to the resources would be negligible. Three scenarios were evaluated as possible dewatering discharge disposal solutions. The preferred scenario included the discharge of this water to the stream, which is flowing on the western side of the quarry. The pit will start to fill with water immediately after the dewatering operations stopped. In order to predict the pit lake flooding period and final lake elevation, pit lake hydrologic model was developed. The simulations predict that the final pit lake elevation would be at 991 m. The pit lake will rise to this level at approximately 72 years after closure.