Water quality monitoring is crucial globally due to the vital role of freshwater in providing drinking water, irrigation, and ecosystem services. Highly polluted water poses risks to both ecosystems and human health. Current water quality monitoring methods deployed in the field are often expensive, labor-intensive, and invasive. To overcome these issues, this degree project investigated the use of remote sensing to assess critical water quality parameters in the Swedish river Indalsälven. The research questions focus on determining the accuracy of predicting chemical oxygen demand (COD), river color, turbidity, and total phosphorus (TP) using satellite data and machine learning algorithms. The findings revealed that COD can be predicted with a cross-validated coefficient of determination (R²CV) of 0.7, indicating a robust predictive capability. The study suggests that while approximate quantitative prediction of COD in oligotrophic rivers is feasible using Sentinel-2 imagery, predictions for the other parameters remain challenging in the context of Indalsälven. Improvements in prediction accuracy were achieved through optimized band combinations, reduced datasets encompassing satellite data collected within two days of field measurements, and suitable pre-processing methods. / Airborne Monitoring of Water Quality in Remote Regions

The most common eelgrass along the Swedish coast is Zostera marina. It is an ecosystem engineer which provides both nature and humans with important ecosystem services and various ecosystem functions. Eutrophication is one of the main reasons why the Swedish coast has lost a lot of Z. marina meadows. When there is more nitrogen in the ocean, it is an advantage for epiphytic algae so that they can grow faster. The epiphytic algae grow on Z. marina and reduce Z. marina from receiving light. And therefore, the aim of my thesis is to investigate the effect of eutrophication on the growth of epiphytic algae on Z. marina. I took water samples at 8 different locations (spanning 7.21 km) along the coast of Halmstad, from the mouth of river Nissan, which I hypothesize to be a main source of nitrogen, to the open sea. From the water samples nitrogen, absorbance and TOC was measured to see if there was any difference in the water composition from Nissan's outlet and seawards. Z. marina leaves were taken from two different sites on one occasion to investigate the degree of epiphytic algae on the leaves. I found that the nitrogen concentration was decreasing from the outlet of Nissan River along coast towards the open sea. Also, the growth of epiphytic algae on Z. marina was decreasing from the outlet of Nissan River along the coast towards the open sea. The growth of epiphytic algae on Z. marina was not solely dependent of the concentration of nitrogen. In Scandinavia, Z. marina meadows are one of the most diverse coastal ecosystems. On otherwise sandy and species-poor substrates, Z. marina is an important habitat for a rich epiflora and fauna so a more integrated understanding in both management and science of Z. marina's stress responses is needed.

Dagvatten är det vatten som faller som nederbörd och sedan rinner över vägar och bebyggelse ned i brunnar eller direkt till recipienten. Dagvatten innehåller många olika föroreningar som kan vara direkt skadliga för vattenmiljön. I examensarbetet undersöks Gottsunda dagvattenpark som syftar till att rena dagvattnet innan det når recipienten Hågaån. Målet är att alla ytvattenförekomster i Sverige ska uppnå god ekologisk och kemisk ytvattenstatus, då Hågaån inte uppnår detta i dagsläget är det viktigt att kvantifiera hur väl den befintliga reningen av dagvatten fungerar. Syftet med examensarbetet är att undersöka om kontinuerlig turbiditets- och flödesmätning kan vara en fungerande metod för att kvantifiera transport och avskiljning av dagvattenföroreningarna suspenderat material, fosfor, kadmium, krom, nickel, koppar, bly och zink. Kontinuerliga sensormätningar kan i högre grad fånga in den snabba variationen i dagvatten än konventionella mätmetoder. Bland annat kan turbiditet mätas kontinuerligt med sensorer, en parameter som ofta visar hög korrelation med bland annat suspenderat material. Denna studie visade att signifikanta linjära samband finns mellan turbiditet med suspenderat material, fosfor och metaller för Gottsunda dagvattenparks in- och utlopp. En viss osäkerhet förekommer för sambanden i inloppet till följd av extremvärden med hög influens där ett behov finns av fler stickprover. Den beräknade avskiljningen i denna studie är något lägre än vad som förväntas, en möjlig förklaring är den stora fraktionen lerjordar i avrinningsområdet samt att dammen är förhållandevis nyetablerad. En ytterligare förklaring kan vara att det inte är exakt samma vattenpaket som undersökts i in- och utlopp, vilket antas gett upphov till en underskattning av avskiljningen. Vid viktning av mängderna utifrån en korrekt vattenbalans uppnås en högre avskiljning. Avskiljningsförmågan i Gottsunda dagvattenpark har i stort ökat med tiden men med sämre avskiljning under vintermånaderna. Kontinuerliga sensormätningar fungerar bra för att uppskatta medelkoncentrationer och belastningar av föroreningar och har potentialen att revolutionera dagvattenövervakningen. Dock behövs mer forskning där bland annat partikelsammansättningens påverkan behöver undersökas. / Stormwater is the precipitation that falls over cities and proceeds to flow on our streets, collecting pollutants on its way to the recipient. Stormwater contains a lot of different pollutants that can cause harm to our water bodies. In the study, Gottsunda stormwater pond is examined, whose purpose is to purify the stormwater before it reaches the recipient Hågaån. The goal is that all waters in Sweden should achieve good ecological and chemical surface water status. Since this isn’t achieved by Hågaån it is important to quantify if the current stormwater purification works as intended. The purpose of this study is to examine the potential to use high frequency sensors, measuring turbidity and discharge, to quantify transport and removal of the stormwater pollutants suspended solids, phosphorus, cadmium, chromium, nickel, copper, lead, and zinc. Measuring turbidity and discharge continuously using high frequency sensors can capture the fast variation in stormwater to a higher extent than conventional methods. Turbidity is a parameter which often shows high correlation with e.g. suspended solids. The study showed significant linear relationships between turbidity with suspended solids, phosphorus, and metals for incoming and outgoing water of Gottsunda stormwater pond. Uncertainty is present in the relationships for the incoming water due to extreme values with high influence, thus more grab samples are required. The calculated removal of pollutants is below the expected level, a possible explanation for this is the high fraction of clay soils in the catchment and the young age of the pond. Another explanation could be that the water volumes differ between in- and outlet. Considering the same volumes a higher removal is retrieved. The ability to remove pollutants has increased over time since the pond was established, with exception for the winter months. High frequency sensor measurements work well for estimating mean concentrations and loads of pollutants and has the potential of revolutionizing surveillance of stormwater. Although, more research is required where the effect of particle composition needs to be examined more closely.

Thesis (MScEng)--Stellenbosch University, 2012. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Nearly all South African abalone farms function on an intensive pump-ashore, flow-through system. Large volumes of sea water that are pumped ashore flow through abalone or kelp harvesting tanks and finally gravitate back to the ocean. If the effluent from an abalone farm can be desalinated without permanent membrane fouling, then sea water reverse osmosis (SWRO) technology can be integrated effectively with established abalone farms without having to increase the farms’ intake system capacities. Without the need to construct and maintain an intake system, the overall cost of desalination can be reduced. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine the feasibility and viability of integrating a SWRO desalination plant with a typical South African abalone farm. The project focused on four areas of concern, namely: - characterisation of typical South African abalone farm water - SWRO desalination plant pilot study and membrane fouling behaviour - general operation of a typical abalone farm and its implications for desalination - cost estimates and implications for the integration of an SWRO desalination plant with an abalone farm During a nine-month on-site investigation, sea water turbidity was reduced by up to 43% from a mean value of 0.82 NTU in the influent stream to 0.47 NTU in the combined effluent stream from the abalone tanks. Even with spikes in the influent turbidity, the turbidity of the combined effluent from all abalone tanks (excluding tank flush water) remained below 1 NTU. Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) in both the influent and combined effluent remained below 1 mg/litre. Ultrafiltration (UF) was selected as pre-treatment to the reverse osmosis (RO) in order to minimise potential fouling of the RO membranes. Membrane compaction of both the UF and RO membranes contributed significantly to initial flux losses – as much as 18% for the polyethersulfone (PESM) UF membranes and 20% for the thin film composite (TFC) polyamide RO membrane. However, this is comfortably in line with typical compaction values quoted in the literature. Without pre-flocculation, the UF was able to operate at a specific flux between 45 and 55 litre/m2/h (LMH) and recoveries ranging between 60 and 75%. Corresponding trans-membrane pressure (TMP) ranged between 0.59 and 0.76 bar. With ferric chloride pre-flocculation at a concentration of 3 mg/litre (as Fe3+) the UF could be operated at notably lower TMP values between 0.11 and 0.36 bar. These results indicate that provision should definitely be made for pre-flocculation when using UF as pre-treatment, despite the fact that the DOC concentrations and turbidity of the abalone farm effluent are quite low (DOC <1 mg/litre, NTU <1). It furthermore highlights the inability of DOC and turbidity alone to predict the membrane fouling potential of water. A better indicator of membrane fouling potential, albeit not perfect, is the modified fouling index (MFI0.45). This index follows a linear trend with foulant concentration and serves as a good indicator of the filterability of water. On-site measurements showed an increase in mean MFI0.45 values from 29 s/litre2 for the influent to 48 s/litre2 for the effluent from the abalone tanks, thereby confirming the need for pre-flocculation as part of UF pre-treatment. Chemically enhanced backwashing (CEB) of the UF membrane at least every 24 hours was found to be essential for its stable operation. Therefore, UF with pre-flocculation (3 mg/litre Fe3+) and regular CEB can be used effectively as pre-treatment method for the desalination of abalone farm effluent water. An RO ‘feed-and-bleed’ system was used to simulate the typical performance of the last membrane in a full-scale RO membrane bank. This RO membrane performed well with no signs of extreme fouling. The membrane produced a good quality permeate – for the last membrane in a membrane bank – reducing the TDS of the RO feed from 33 493 mg/litre to 969 mg/litre. These results compared well with simulated values by Reverse Osmosis System Analysis (ROSA; an RO simulator by DOW), indicating a TDS reduction from 33 271 mg/litre to 1 409 mg/litre at a feed pressure of 56 bar, and overall recovery of 44%. A steady performance of the RO membrane during the pilot study indicated that it is possible to desalinate abalone effluent water without notable permanent membrane fouling. A stable normalised flux rate of 8 LMH was achieved and RO membrane integrity remained intact with a salt rejection that ranged from 98.0 to 98.5%. No sudden reduction in permeate flux was observed as a result of fouling by unknown constituents present in the UF permeate. DBNPA (a non-oxidising disinfectant) was dosed once per week at a concentration of 10 – 30 mg/litre for 30 minutes. Scaling was controlled effectively by means of an antiscalant dosed at a concentration of 11 – 12 mg/litre in the feed stream. The CIP frequency was not optimised but a CIP frequency of once every 6 – 8 weeks appeared to be more than adequate to prevent permanent membrane fouling Advantages of integrating an SWRO desalination plant with a South African abalone farm include: - no lengthy and costly environmental impact assessment (EIA) is required to build a new intake system - shared capital and operational cost of intake system - dual incentive to keep constant good quality water flowing through the farm - early warnings regarding occurrences such as algal bloom and red bait - shared operational and management cost to keep pipelines clean - electricity saved (pumps for intake system) Disadvantages of integrating an SWRO desalination plant with a South African abalone farm include: - will require diverting of the abalone tank wash water from regular effluent - possible water ‘down-times’ due to maintenance operations on abalone farm Based on information from the literature the fixed capital cost depreciation rate (FCCDR) typically contributes approximately 40% and the operation and maintenance (O&M) cost typically contributes 60% to the unit production cost (UPC) of desalinated water. Furthermore, a SWRO desalination plant’s intake system can contribute between 5% and 33% to the FCCDR, depending on the nature and design of the plant. Consequently, the intake system can contribute between 2% and 13% of the UPC of desalinated sea water. This implies possible cost savings of between R0.15/m3 and R2.37/m3 for the production of fresh water (depending on site-specific design factors) when desalinating sea water effluent from on-shore abalone tanks. Integration of an SWRO desalination plant with a South African abalone farm is feasible and viable, provided that the necessary steps and precautions are taken to ensure a smooth and stable operation of the SWRO desalination plant. Cost savings on the part of all the stakeholders are possible if the correct contract can be negotiated. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Byna alle Suid Afrikaanse perlemoenplase funksioneer op ‘n seewater deurvloeistelsel. Groot volumes seewater word aan wal gepomp en vloei deur die perlemoen of kelp-oes tenks. Hierdie water vloei dan uiteindelik terug na die oseaan as gevolg van swaartekrag. Indien die afvalwater van die perlemoenplase ontsout kan word sonder permanente membraanbevuiling kan seewater tru-osmose (SWTO)-tegnologie effektief met gevestigde perlemoenplase geïntegreer word sonder om die plase se water inname-stelsels se kapasiteite te vergroot. Sonder die behoefte aan uitbreiding en instandhouding van ‘n water inname-stelsel by so ‘n plaas behoort die totale koste van ontsouting aansienlik minder te wees. Die doel van hierdie studie was dus om die uitvoerbaarheid en lewensvatbaarheid van ‘n integrasie van ‘n SWTO ontsoutingsaanleg met ‘n tipiese Suid Afrikaanse perlemoenplaas te ondersoek. Ten einde dit te doen, het die projek op vier areas van belang gefokus, naamlik: - karakterisering van tipiese Suid-Afrikaanse perlemoenplaas water - SWTO ontsoutingsaanleg loodsstudie en membraan bevuilingsgedrag - algemene bedryf van ‘n tipiese perlemoenplaas en die implikasies vir ontsouting - kosteberamings en koste-implikasies met betrekking tot die integrasie van ‘n SWTO ontsoutingsaanleg met ‘n perlemoenplaas Gedurende ‘n nege maande op-perseel ondersoek is seewater troebelheid verminder met tot 43% van 'n gemiddelde waarde van 0.82 NTU in die invloeistroom tot 0.47 NTU in die gekombineerde afvalwaterstroom wat die tenks verlaat. Selfs met skerp wisseling in die invloeistroom troebelheid, bly afvalwaterstroom troebelheid deurgaans onder 1 NTU met die uitsondering van tenk spoelwater. Opgeloste organiese koolstof (OOK) in beide die invloeistroom en die gekombineerde afvalwaterstroom het deurgaans onder 1 mg/liter gebly. Ultrafiltrasie (UF) is gebruik as voorbehandeling vir die tru-osmose (TO) om sodoende potensiële bevuiling van TO membrane te minimaliseer. Membraan kompaksie van beide die UF en TO het merkbaar bygedra tot aanvanlike deurvloeiverliese – so veel as 18% vir die poli-etersulfoon (PESM) UF membrane en 20% vir die dun film saamgestelde (DFS) poli-amied TO membraan. Hierdie is egter gerieflik binne die tipiese kompaksiewaardes soos aangehaal in die literatuur. Sonder flokkulasie was die UF in staat tot temperatuur aangepaste deurvloeitempo van tussen 45 en 55 liter/m2/h (LMH) teen herwinningstempo’s tussen 60 en 75%. Ooreenstemmende trans-membraandrukkings (TMD) het gewissel tussen 0.59 en 0.76 bar. Met ysterchloried voor-flokkulasie teen 'n konsentrasie van 3 mg/liter (as Fe3+) kon die UF teen merkbaar laer TMD waardes bedryf word – tussen 0.11 en 0.36 bar. Hierdie resultate dui daarop dat daar beslis voorsiening vir pre-flokkulasie gemaak moet word wanneer UF as voorbehandeling gebruik word, ten spyte van die feit dat die OOK konsentrasie en troebelheid van die afvalwater van die perlemoenplaas redelik laag is (OOK <1 mg / liter, troebelheid <1 NTU). Verder lig dit die onvermoë uit om OOK en troebelheid alleen te gebruik om membraanbevuilingspotensiaal van water te voorspel. ‘n Beter aanwyser van membraanbevuilingspotensiaal, alhoewel nie perfek nie, is die aangepaste bevuilingsindeks (MFI0.45). Hierdie bevuilingsindeks volg ‘n lineêre neiging met die konsentrasie van onsuiwerhede en dien as ‘n goeie aanwyser van die filtreerbaarheid van water. Op-perseel metings het getoon dat ‘n toename in gemiddelde MFI0.45 waardes van 29 s/litre2 vir die invloeistroom tot 48 s/litre2 vir die afvalstroom van die perlemoentenks die behoefte vir voor-flokkulasie as deel van UF voorbehandeling bevestig. Chemies versterkte terugspoeling (CVT) van die UF membrane ten minste elke 24 uur is noodsaaklik gevind ten einde bestendige werking te verseker. Dus kan UF met voor-flokkulasie (3 mg/liter Fe3 +) en gereelde CVT effektief as voorbehandeling metode vir die ontsouting van perlemoenplaas afvalwater gebruik word. ‘n TO ‘voer-en-bloeistelsel’ is gebruik om die tipiese prestasie van die laaste membraan in ‘n volskaalse TO membraanbank te simuleer. Hierdie TO membraan het goed presteer sonder tekens van buitensporige membraanbevuiling. Vir die laaste membraan in ‘n membraanbank het die membraan goeie gehalte finale water gelewer – ‘n vermindering van die totaal opgeloste stowwe (TOS) van die TO voerwater van 33 493 mg/liter tot 969 mg/liter is behaal. Hierdie resultate het goed vergelyk met gesimuleerde waardes deur Reverse Osmosis Analysis System (ROSA, ‘n TO simulator deur DOW) wat ‘n TOS vermindering van 33 271 mg/liter tot 1 409 mg/liter by ‘n voerdruk van 56 bar en ‘n algehele herwinningstempo van 44% aandui. ‘n Bestendige werking van die TO membraan tydens die loodsstudie het getoon dat dit moontlik is om perlemoenplaas afvalwater te ontsout sonder merkwaardige permanente membraanbevuiling. 'n Stabiele genormaliseerde deurvloeitempo van 8 LMH is bereik en TO membraan integriteit het ongeskonde gebly met 'n sout verwerping wat gewissel het van 98.0 tot 98.5%. Geen skielike afname in finale water deurvloeitempo is waargeneem as gevolg van bevuiling deur onbekende onsuiwerhede in die UF finale water nie. DBNPA (‘n nie-oksiderende ontsmettingsmiddel) is een keer per week teen ‘n ‘n konsentrasie van 10 – 30 mg / liter vir 30 minute gedoseer. Mineraal skaalvorming is effektief beheer deur die dosering van ‘n anti-skaalmiddel teen 11 – 12 mg/liter in die TO voerstroom. Die skoonmaak-in-plek (SIP) frekwensie is nie ge-optimeer nie, maar ‘n SIP een keer elke 6 – 8 weke is meer as voldoende gevind om mikrobiese bevuiling te voorkom. Voordele van die integrasie van 'n SWTO ontsoutingsaanleg met 'n Suid-Afrikaanse perlemoenplaas sluit die volgende in: - geen lang en duur omgewings impak ontleding (OIO) is nodig vir die bou van ‘n nuwe inname-stelsel nie - gedeelde kapitaal en operasionele koste van inname-stelsel - tweeledige aansporing om konstant goeie gehalte watervloei deur die plaas te verseker - vroegtydige waarskuwings ten opsigte van gebeurtenisse soos rooigety - gedeelde bedryfs- en bestuurskoste om voerpype skoon te hou Nadele van die integrasie van 'n SWTO ontsoutingsaanleg met 'n Suid-Afrikaanse perlemoenplaas sluit die volgende in: - vereis herleiding van perlemoentenk spoelwater weg van gereelde afvalwater - moontlike watervloei-aftye weens instandhoudingsbedrywighede op die perlemoenplaas Gebaseer op inligting uit die literatuur dra die vaste kapitaal koste waardeverminderings-koers (VKKWK) gewoonlik ongeveer 40% en die bedryfs- en instandhoudingskoste (B&I) ongeveer 60% by tot die produksiekoste per eenheid (PKE) van ontsoute water.Verder kan ’n SWTO ontsoutingsaanleg se inname-stelsel tussen 5% en 33% tot die VKKWK bydra afhangende van die aard en ontwerp van die aanleg. Gevolglik kan die inname-stelsel tussen 2% en 13% tot die PKE van ontsoute seewater bydra. Dit impliseer ‘n moontlike kostebesparing van tussen R0.15/m3 en R2.37/m3 vir die produksie van vars water wanneer die afvalwater van perlemoentenks ontsout word. Integrasie van 'n SWTO ontsoutingsaanleg met 'n Suid-Afrikaanse perlemoenplaas is uitvoerbaar en lewensvatbaar indien die nodige stappe en voorsorgmaatreëls geneem is om ‘n vlot en bestendige werking van die SWTO ontsoutingsaanleg te verseker. Kostebesparings vir alle belanghebbendes (beleggers) is moontlik indien daar oor die korrekte kontrak onderhandel kan word.

Wind induced turbidity within shallow lakes can greatly affect the biological functioning of a system in either a positive or negative manner. This research aims to understand and model the physical processes that cause sediment re-suspension. Lake St Lucia on the east coast of South Africa, a UNESCO World heritage site was used as a case study. Lake St. Lucia is a shallow water system which commonly experiences high levels of turbidity. Coupled with the naturally shallow depth of the lake, it is currently drought stricken, resulting in abnormally low water levels. A simple model has been developed which accounts for sediment re-suspension due to wind-driven waves and their associated bed shear stresses. The wave heights within a shallow lake such as St Lucia are controlled either by the fetch (for a large water depth), or the water depth (for a large fetch). When the wind is strong enough, the wind-driven turbulent mixing causes the water column to become fully mixed. When the wave-driven boundary layer becomes turbulent, sediment, being entrained within the water column increases significantly. The model also accounts for the effects of temporal consolidation on the re-suspension of sediments by setting a time scale for the erosion processes. It was found that the median of the monthly turbidity levels over the past ten years exceeded the average turbidity levels over the past 92 years. In all cases it was shown that mouth linkage with the uMfolozi resulted in lower turbidity levels than without any linkage due to the higher average water levels. The model was then developed to predict the spatial variation in turbidity within the Southern Lake. This was achieved through the use of existing bathymetric data for the Lake. This spatial model was then used to show how the turbidity varied for different wind and water depth conditions. Two conditions were considered, a NE and SW wind blowing at 8m/s for water levels of 0 EMSL and -0.5 EMSL. The spatial model showed that a decrease in water level increases the turbidity within the lake significantly. The wind directions appeared to yield similar results of sediment re-suspension. It was also shown that the high turbidity values were situated in the shallow depths even though the wave heights were small in comparison to those in deeper water. / Thesis (M.Sc.Eng.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2011.

This PhD study focusses on the use of MEdium Resolution Imaging Spectrometer (MERIS) data for reliable and quantitative water-quality assessment of optically-complex waters (lake, brackish and coastal waters). The thesis is divided into two parts: A. intercalibration of reflectance measurements in different optically-complex water bodies (Paper I), and validation of various satellite processing algorithms for the coastal zone (Paper II). B. Applications: the use of MERIS data in integrated coastal zone management mostly using Himmerfjärden bay as an example. Himmerfjärden bay is one of the most frequently monitored coastal areas in the world and it is also the recipient of a large urban sewage treatment plant, where a number of full-scale nutrient management experiments have been conducted to evaluate the ecological changes due to changes in nutrient schemes in the sewage plant. Paper I describes the development and assessment of a new hyperspectral handheld radiometer for in situ sampling and validation of remote sensing reflectance.  The instrument is assessed in comparison with readily available radiometers that are commonly used in validation. Paper II has a focus on the validation of level 2 reflectance and water products derived from MERIS data. It highlights the importance of calibration and validation activities, and the current accuracy and limitations of satellite products in the coastal zone.  Bio-optical in situ data is highlighted as one of the key components for assessing the reliability of current and future satellite missions. Besides suspended particulate matter (SPM), the standard MERIS products have shown to be insufficient to assure data quality retrieval for Baltic Sea waters. Alternative processors and methods such as those assessed and developed in this thesis therefore will have to be put in place in order to secure the success of future operational missions, such as Sentinel-3. The two presented manuscripts in the applied part B of the thesis (paper III and IV), showed examples on the combined use of in situ measurements with optical remote sensing to support water quality monitoring programs by using turbidity and suspended particulate matter as coastal indicators (manuscript III). The article also provides  a new turbidity algorithm for the Baltic Sea and a robust and cost-efficient method for research and management.  A novel approach to improve the quality of the satellite-derived products in the coastal zone was demonstrated in manuscript IV. The analysis included, the correction for adjacency effects from land and an improved pixel quality screening.  The thesis provides the first detailed spatio-temporal description of the evolution of phytoplankton blooms in Himmerfjärden bay  using quality-assured MERIS data, thus forwarding our understanding of ecological processes in in Swedish coastal waters. It must be noted that monitoring from space is not a trivial matter in these optically-complex waters dominated by the absorption of coloured dissolved organic matter (CDOM). These types of coastal waters are especially challenging for quantitative assessment from space due to their low reflectance.  Papers III and IV thus also provide tools for a more versatile use in other coastal waters that are not as optically-complex as the highly absorbing Baltic Sea waters. The benefits of the increased spatial-temporal data coverage by optical remote sensing were presented, and also compared to in situ sampling methods (using chlorophyll-a as indicator). / <p>Research funders:</p><p>European Space Agency (ESA, contract no.21524/08/I-OL)</p><p>NordForsk funding: Nord AquaRemS Ref. no. 80106</p><p>NordForsk funding:  NordBaltRemS Ref.no. 42041</p><p>At the time of the doctoral defense, the following papers were unpublished and had a status as follows: Paper 3: Manuscript. Paper 4: Manuscript.</p>

Se evaluó el tratamiento de efluentes de la industria alimentaria por coagulación-floculación utilizando almidón de Solanum tuberosum L. „papa‟ como alternativa al manejo convencional. Los ensayos se realizaron a escala de laboratorio realizando la prueba de jarras con dos coagulantes: sulfato de aluminio y policloruro de aluminio, y dos floculantes: poliacrilamida aniónica y almidón gelatinizado, con variaciones en relación a dosis, concentración y velocidad. Para determinar los parámetros ideales se utilizaron las siguientes variables respuesta: índice de Willcomb, absorbancia, turbidez y demanda química de oxígeno. El mejor tratamiento fue con el coagulante policloruro de aluminio y el floculante poliacrilamida aniónica alcanzándose un porcentaje de reducción de DQO de 83,05%. Aun así, los resultados al utilizar almidón sugieren que se puede reemplazar la poliacrilamida aniónica por el almidón de S. tuberosum al aplicar un tratamiento primario a un efluente industrial no doméstico de una empresa alimentaria ubicada en el distrito de Ate en la ciudad de Lima, Perú para cumplir los Valores máximos admisibles del Decreto Supremo N°021-009-Vivienda, en el aspecto de la carga orgánica presente.Treatment of industrial wastewater was evaluated through coagulation-floculation using starch of Solanum tuberosum L. „potato‟ as an alternative to the conventional management. Assays were performed in a laboratory scale by performing Jar Test with two coagulants: aluminum sulfate and aluminum polychloride, and two flocculants: anionic polyacrylamide and gelatinized starch, making variations in dose, concentration and speed. To determine the ideal parameters, the following response variables were used: Willcomb index, absorbance, turbidity and chemical oxygen demand. The best treatment was when using aluminum polychloride as coagulant and anionic polyacrylamide as flocculant, reaching a reduction percentage of 83,05% in chemical oxygen demand. Even then, the results suggest that can the anionic polyacrylamide can be replaced by starch of S. tuberosum when applying a primary treatment to industrial wastewater from a food company located in the district of Ate in Lima, Perú to meet the admisible values set in the Supreme Decree No. 021-009-VIVIENDA, in the aspect of organic matter present in it.

L'étude des matières en suspension (MES) minérales est essentielle pour comprendre le fonctionnement des écosystèmes en Manche : les MES influencent la pénétration de la lumière dans la colonne d'eau, paramètre clé pour la production biologique, et sont susceptibles de transporter des polluants et nutriments. Lors de ce travail, la dynamique des MES minérales de surface en Manche est étudiée à l'aide de deux méthodes complémentaires : l'observation par satellite et la modélisation numérique tridimensionnelle. Dans un premier temps, les images satellite MODIS et MERIS, traitées par l'algorithme semi-analytique développé par l'IFREMER et représentant les MES non-algales de surface, sont analysées afin d'élaborer trois modèles statistiques permettant d'estimer la MES de surface en fonction de variables basiques telles que le coefficient de marée, la hauteur significative des vagues et la concentration moyenne en chlorophylle-a. Dans un deuxième temps, le modèle hydrosédimentaire multiclasse tridimensionnel ROMS (Regional Ocean Modeling System) est implémenté en Manche. Il prend en considération le forçage par la marée aux frontières ouvertes, la contrainte exercée par le vent à la surface de la mer, l'interaction houle-courant en couche limite de fond et l’hétérogénéité spatiale réaliste du lit sédimentaire. Les résultats du modèle statistique le plus sophistiqué sont également utilisés pour forcer la concentration en MES aux frontières ouvertes du domaine de calcul. Des tests de sensibilité sur les conditions limites montrent l'importance de considérer de manière réaliste les sédiments entrant en Manche par les frontières ouvertes lors de la modélisation numérique. L'influence de la biologie sur les MES minérales est testée en utilisant une formulation de la vitesse de chute et de la contrainte critique d'érosion variant saisonnièrement.Grâce à ces deux outils associés, les influences respectives de la marée, de la houle et de la biologie sur les MES minérales sont mises en avant et localisées en Manche. Le modèle numérique prédit que les MES de surface sont composées principalement de silts (>70%). Les silts en suspension en surface proviennent majoritairement du lit sédimentaire près des côtes en Manche orientale et des frontières ouvertes du domaine de calcul à l'ouest de la presqu'île du Cotentin et au large en Manche centrale et orientale. Les variations des MES de surface sont ensuite étudiées aux échelles des cycles de marée semi-diurnes, vive-eau/morte-eau et autour d'un épisode de houles. Enfin, l'évolution de la concentration de sédiments dans la zone de forte turbidité autour de l'île de Wight peut être analysée suivant les conditions hydrodynamiques afin d'évaluer les rôles respectifs des processus locaux d'érosion/dépot et d'advection dans la génération de ces turbidités remarquables. / Study of mineral suspended particulate matter (SPM) is essential to understand ecosystem dynamics. SPM influences light penetration which is closely related to primary production and carries pollutants and nutrients within the water masses. This work aims to study near-surface mineral SPM dynamics in the English Channel using two complementary methods: remote-sensing by satellites and numerical modelling.Firstly, MODIS and MERIS satellite images processed by the IFREMER semi-analytical algorithm and describing non-algal SPM, are analysed to build three statistical models which are able to estimate near-surface SPM using simple variables, e.g., tidal coefficient, significant wave height and mean chlorophyll-a concentration. Secondly, the three-dimensional hydrosedimentary model ROMS (Regional Ocean Modeling System) is applied in the English Channel. It considers tidal forcing along open boundaries, wind stress at the sea-surface, wave-current interactions in the bottom boundary layer and realistic heterogeneous bottom sediments. Results of the more sophisticated statistical model is also used to impose SPM concentrations at open boundaries. Sensitivity tests on SPM boundary conditions show the importance of prescribing realistic sediment concentrations to improve the model predictions. Biological influences on mineral SPM are also tested using settling velocity and critical shear stress for erosion which vary with seasons.Both statistical and numerical models highlight and locate respective influences of tide, waves and biology on mineral SPM. Numerical predictions indicate that near-surface SPM is mainly composed of silts (>70%). Near-surface suspended silts come largely from seabed resuspension alongshore in the Eastern Channel and from the open boundaries of our limited-area coastal model at the West of Cotentin Peninsula and offshore. Near-surface SPM variations are investigated at semi-diurnal, neap-spring tidal cycle time scales and during a wave event. Finally, dynamics of sediments in the turbidity maximum zone around the Isle of Wight is examined depending on hydrodynamical conditions in order to distinguish the role played by advection and local erosion/settling processes in this area.

L’objectif de ce travail est d’étudier la dynamique du bouchon vaseux, ainsi que la dynamique saline, dans l’estuaire de la Gironde. La stratégie adoptée consiste à examiner, par le biais du modèle de simulation SIAM-3D, l’impact du paramétrage hydro-sédimentaire, du débit fluvial et de la bathymétrie, sur le comportement des sédiments et sur l’évolution de la salinité. L’effet de la vitesse de chute sur la dynamique sédimentaire est l’un des cas étudiés ; son impact sur la distribution des suspensions est considérable. Ainsi, la diminution de ce paramètre entraîne l’homogénéisation de la concentration sur la verticale, mais aussi l’étalement du bouchon vaseux et l’évacuation d’une masse de sédiment hors de l’estuaire. Nous avons également mis en évidence lors d’une période de débits moyens ou faibles précédée par une crue, la partition du bouchon vaseux simulé en deux masses turbides, l’une remonte l’estuaire alors que l’autre se maintient en aval. La dynamique saline a été étudiée, entre autres, par l’analyse des gradients de salinité, calculés dans l’estuaire aval et en situation de forts débits. On observe, la diminution de ces gradients avec l’augmentation de l’intensité de la marée à l’échelle des cycles vives-eaux/mortes-eaux, toutefois, de fortes valeurs sont maintenues lors de la phase d’augmentation de cette grandeur à l’échelle de la marée. D’autres résultats ont permis de vérifier la capacité du modèle à simuler des dynamiques sédimentaires observées in-situ ; on peut citer entre autres, le détachement du bouchon vaseux de la rive gauche dans l’estuaire aval et son transfert vers la rive droite, en situation de forts débits. Afin d’évaluer l’impact de l’évolution du fond des fleuves de 1959 à 2002 sur l’hydrodynamique et les dynamiques sédimentaire et saline, nous avons comparé deux simulations, l’une effectuée avec l’ancienne bathymétrie de 1959, l’autre avec la nouvelle bathymétrie de 2002. Les résultats montrent l’augmentation de la masse sédimentaire dans les fleuves avec la bathymétrie de 2002 comparée à celle de 1959, ainsi que la hausse de la salinité dans la Garonne et l’amplification de la marée dans la Dordogne. Ces résultats sont en accord avec les mesures et observations in-situ. / The aim of this work is to study the turbidity maximum dynamics as well as the salinity dynamics in the Gironde estuary. The adopted strategy consists in analysing, by means of the SIAM-3D simulation model, the impact of hydro-sedimentary parameters, the fluvial flow and the bathymetry on sediment behaviour and salinity evolution. The effect of settling velocity on sediment dynamics is one of the studied cases; its impact on suspended sediment distribution is goodly. Thus, the diminution of this parameter leads to homogenisation of concentration in water column, but also spreading the turbidity maximum and evacuation of a sediment mass outside the Gironde estuary. We gave also prominence to the division of the turbidity maximum into two parts during low or mean water flow preceded by peak high water discharge, one of the parts migrates upstream whereas the other remains downstream. We studied the salinity dynamics, among others things, by means of analysing the calculated salinity gradients in the lower estuary during high water discharge. We observe the decrease of these gradients with increase of the tide intensity on a scale of spring tides/neap tides cycles, however, on a scale of tide, these gradients reach high values during the augmentation phase. Others results indicate the model capacity to simulate in-situ observations of the sediment dynamics; for example, the detachment of turbidity maximum from the left bank in the lower estuary and its transfer to the right bank during high water discharge. In order to evaluate the impact of the bed river evolution from 1959 to 2002 on hydrodynamics, sediment and salinity dynamics, we compared two simulations performed using the former (1959) and recent (2002) bathymetries. The results demonstrate that the sediment mass increase in the rivers with recent bathymetry, as well as, the salinity in the Garonne river and the tide amplitude in the Dordogne river. These results are in accordance with the in-situ measures and observations.

La migration des bancs de vase observée le long des côtes Guyanaises génère des problématiques de navigation, particulièrement pour l'unique port de commerce de Guyane localisé dans l'estuaire du Mahury. La dynamique hydrosédimentaire de cet estuaire mésotidal et l'influence des bancs sur cette dernière sont très peu renseignées. Les principaux résultats de cette étude mettent en évidence l'importance relative du débit et des courants de marée sur la dynamique des sédiments fins. Bien que l'asymétrie de la marée soit dominée par le flot, les courants de jusant sont prédominants en saison humide et équivalents aux courants de flot en saison sèche. La dynamique des sédiments fins est gouvernée par la remise en suspension, bien que des épisodes de stratification puissent fortement atténuer la turbulence durant les premières heures du jusant. Les flux résiduels de sédiments sont généralement orientés vers l'amont durant la saison sèche et vers l'aval en saison humide, excepté lorsque les débits sont inférieurs aux moyennes saisonnières. L'évolution des fonds de l'estuaire sur 20 ans indique néanmoins une stabilité des dépôts et souligne la capacité de l'estuaire à évacuer les sédiments apportés durant la phase d'envasement. L'interdépendance entre l'estuaire du Mahury et le banc de Kaw sera ainsi soumise à discussion. Elle permettra d'évaluer la capacité du banc de Kaw à influencer la sédimentologie de l'estuaire et inversement d'évaluer la capacité de l'estuaire à perturber la migration du banc. / The mud banks migration observed along the Guyanese coastline generates navigating issues, especially for the unique harbor of French Guiana located in the Mahury Estuary. The hydro-sedimentary dynamic of this mesotidal estuary and the influence of the mud banks migration is poorly documented. The main results have brought to light the relative importance of the river discharge and tidal currents on the fine sediment dynamics. Even though the tidal asymmetry is dominated by the flood, the ebb currents are predominant during the wet season and are equivalent to the flood currents during the dry season. The fine sediment dynamics are mainly governed by the resuspension even though some stratification events can highly damp turbulence during the first hours of the ebb. The residual fluxes of sediment are generally landward during the dry season and in the wet season when river discharges are lower than the seasonnal averages. However, the bathymetric evolution over 20 years indicates the stability of the deposits and underlines the estuary's capacity of flushing sediments brought from the mud bank. The interdependence between the Mahury Estuary and the Kaw mudbank will therefore be subject to discussion. It will allow us to evaluate the mud bank influence on the estuarine sedimentology or, inversely, evaluate the capacity of the estuary to interfere with the mud bank migration and slowing down its progression with the currents.