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Introduction: Chronic myeloid leukaemia is a blood cancer which progresses from a chronic phase to an acute blast crisis if untreated. Disease progression and treatment resistance may be precipitated by the mutator action of BCR/ABL protein tyrosine kinase (PTK), but only few protein phosphosites involved in the DNA damage response have been investigated with respect to BCR/ABL action. Aim: The aim of this PhD project was to demonstrate that BCR/ABL PTK expression can affect the response to genotoxic stress signalling at the protein phosphorylation level. Methodology: Etoposide-induced DNA damage response has been studied in control and BCR/ABL PTK-expressing Ba/F3 cells using apoptosis and γH2AX assays. Quantitative phosphoproteomics was performed with iTRAQ peptide labelling to discover putative modulated phosphorylation sites. Absolute quantification (AQUA ) performed with selected reaction monitoring was used to validate discovery phosphoproteomics. The effect of genotoxic stress on the THO complex protein Thoc5/Fmip was studied using western blots. Results: The expression of BCR/ABL PTK induced γH2AX phosphorylation after etoposide exposure. This was associated with the modulation of H2AX tyrosine 142 phosphorylation, MDC1 (serines 595 and 1053) and Hemogen serine 380 phosphorylation among proteins regulated by both BCR/ABL PTK and etoposide. We identified that leukaemogenic PTKs mediate Thoc5/Fmip phosphorylation on tyrosine 225 via Src proto-oncogene and oxidative stress, while ATM and MEK1/2 may control its phosphorylation. Human CD34+ CD38- leukaemic stem cells showed pronounced level of THOC5/FMIP tyrosine phosphorylation. Expression of phosphomutant Thoc5/Fmip Y225F might reduce apoptosis mediated by etoposide and H2O2. Conclusion: BCR/ABL PTK can sustain, create, block and change the intensity of protein phosphorylation related to genotoxic stress. Modulation of H2AX, MDC1, Hemogen and Thoc5/Fmip post-translational modifications by BCR/ABL PTK might promote unfaithful DNA repair, genomic instability, anti-apoptotic signalling or abnormal cell differentiation, resulting in leukaemia progression.

AXL est un récepteur tyrosine kinase (RTK) impliqué dans de nombreux mécanismes cellulaires tels que la migration, l'invasion, l'angiogenèse et la prolifération des cellules. Sa surexpression a été observée dans de nombreux cancers et est souvent liée à un mauvais pronostic vital pour le patient. De plus, ce récepteur semble agir dans un mécanisme important dans la formation de métastases et la résistance aux thérapies anticancéreuses : la transition épithélio-mésenchymateuse (EMT). Nous avons dans un premier temps généré des anticorps monoclonaux murins spécifiques du récepteur AXL. Deux de ces anticorps ont ensuite été sélectionnés pour leurs propriétés inhibitrices de l'expression d'AXL à la surface et de l'activation de ce récepteur par son ligand GAS6. En effet ces deux anticorps, le 20G7D9 et le 3E3E8, entraine l'internalisation et la dégradation lysosomale d'AXL.Nous avons dans un deuxième temps étudié l'expression et le rôle de ce récepteur dans le cancer du pancréas qui possède un manque cruel de solutions thérapeutiques aujourd'hui et dont le taux de survie reste très faible (moins 5% des patients survivent 5 ans après son diagnostic). Nous avons ainsi observé une expression d'AXL dans une majorité des tumeurs de patients (76%), notamment au niveau du front invasif de ces tumeurs. Le ciblage d'AXL par nos deux anticorps inhibe sa signalisation et permet une réduction in vitro et in vivo de la croissance tumorale.Enfin, l'importante expression d'AXL dans le front invasif des tumeurs nous a incité à étudier le rôle d'AXL au cours de la transition épithélio-mésenchymateuse. Nous avons ainsi démontré que le couple AXL/GAS6 induit l'EMT dans des modèles invasifs de cancer du sein triple négatifs. De plus, l'expression du récepteur dans des tumeurs de cancer du sein de type basal-like est corrélée à celle de différents marqueurs importants dans l'EMT. L'application de nos anticorps anti-AXL dans ce type de cancer permet d'inhiber l'induction de l'EMT par le récepteur ainsi que l'invasion cellulaire in vitro et in vivo.Cette thèse a ainsi permis de démontrer l'importance du récepteur tyrosine kinase AXL dans des mécanismes oncogéniques clés et l'efficacité de son ciblage par des anticorps monoclonaux dans des modèles précliniques de cancer. / The Tyrosine Kinase Receptor (TKR) AXL is implicated in various cellular mechanisms (migration, invasion, angiogenesis and cell proliferation). Its overexpression has been observed in many cancers and is often correlated with poor prognosis. Moreover, this receptor seems to be important in Epithelial to Mesenchymal Transition (EMT), a mechanism related to metastasis formation and resistance to anticancer therapies.We have generated several AXL specific murine monoclonal antibodies. Two of them, 20G7D9 and 3E3E8, have been selected for their inhibition properties in AXL expression and activation by its ligand GAS6. In fact, both antibodies induce internalization and lysosomal degradation of AXL.Then we decided to study AXL expression and role in pancreatic cancer, which is characterized by a dramatic overall survival (<5%, 5 years after diagnosis) and a lack of efficient therapeutic solutions. We observed an ectopic expression of AXL in a majority of patient' pancreatic tumors (76%), notably in the invasive front of the tumor. Targeting AXL with both 20G7D9 and 3E3E8 inhibits its signaling and decreases tumor growth in vitro and in vivo.As AXL is mainly expressed in the invasive front of tumors, we analyzed its role during EMT. We observed that AXL/GAS6 signaling induces EMT in triple negative breast cancer cell lines. Furthermore, its expression is correlated with well-defined EMT markers in basal-like breast cancer tumors. In vitro and in vivo application of our antibodies inhibits AXL-dependant EMT signaling and cellular migration and invasion.In conclusion, this thesis demonstrates the importance of AXL Tyrosine Kinase Receptor in oncogenic processes and the efficacy of targeting this receptor with monoclonal antibodies in cancer preclinical models.

<p>Protein tyrosine kinases play an important role in the regulation of various cellular processes such as</p><p>growth, differentiation and survival. GTK, a novel SRC-like cytoplasmic tyrosine kinase, was recently cloned from a mouse insulinoma cell line and the present work was conducted in order to find a biological function of GTK in insulin producing and neuronal cells. It was observed that kinase active GTK-mutants, expressed in RINm5F cells, transferred to the cell nucleus and increased the levels of the cell cycle regulatory protein p27^KIP1, reduced cell growth and stimulated glucagon mRNA expression. Furthermore, wild type GTK induces neurite outgrowth in the rat adrenal pheochromocytoma PC12 cell line, through activation of the RAP1-pathway, suggesting a role of GTK for cell differentiation. Studies using transgenic mice, expressing GTK under the control of the rat insulin 1 promoter, demonstrated a dual role of GTK for β-cell growth: Whereas GTK increases the β-cell mass and causes enhanced β-cell proliferation in response to partial pancreatectomy it also induced β-cell death in response to proinflammatory cytokines and impaired the glucose tolerance in mice treated with the β-cell toxin streptozotocin suggesting a possible role of GTK for β-cell destruction in Type 1 diabetes. We have also observed that GTK-transgenic islets and GTK-expressing RINm5F cells exhibit a reduced insulininduced activation of the insulin receptor substrate (IRS-1 and IRS-2)-pathways, partly due to an increased basal activity of these. GTK was found to associate with and phosphorylate the SH2 domain adapter protein SHB, which could explain many of the GTK-dependent effects both in vitro and in vivo. In summary, the present work suggests that the novel tyrosine kinase GTK is involved in various signal transduction pathways, regulating different cellular responses, such as proliferation, differentiation and survival.</p>

Protein tyrosine kinases play an important role in the regulation of various cellular processes such as growth, differentiation and survival. GTK, a novel SRC-like cytoplasmic tyrosine kinase, was recently cloned from a mouse insulinoma cell line and the present work was conducted in order to find a biological function of GTK in insulin producing and neuronal cells. It was observed that kinase active GTK-mutants, expressed in RINm5F cells, transferred to the cell nucleus and increased the levels of the cell cycle regulatory protein p27KIP1, reduced cell growth and stimulated glucagon mRNA expression. Furthermore, wild type GTK induces neurite outgrowth in the rat adrenal pheochromocytoma PC12 cell line, through activation of the RAP1-pathway, suggesting a role of GTK for cell differentiation. Studies using transgenic mice, expressing GTK under the control of the rat insulin 1 promoter, demonstrated a dual role of GTK for β-cell growth: Whereas GTK increases the β-cell mass and causes enhanced β-cell proliferation in response to partial pancreatectomy it also induced β-cell death in response to proinflammatory cytokines and impaired the glucose tolerance in mice treated with the β-cell toxin streptozotocin suggesting a possible role of GTK for β-cell destruction in Type 1 diabetes. We have also observed that GTK-transgenic islets and GTK-expressing RINm5F cells exhibit a reduced insulininduced activation of the insulin receptor substrate (IRS-1 and IRS-2)-pathways, partly due to an increased basal activity of these. GTK was found to associate with and phosphorylate the SH2 domain adapter protein SHB, which could explain many of the GTK-dependent effects both in vitro and in vivo. In summary, the present work suggests that the novel tyrosine kinase GTK is involved in various signal transduction pathways, regulating different cellular responses, such as proliferation, differentiation and survival.

Protein phosphorylation is an important post-translational modification of proteins, which can either activate or inhibit the function of a given protein. The enzymes, protein kinases and protein phosphatases catalyze the phosphorylation and dephosphorylation of target proteins, respectively. Protein kinases catalyze the transfer of γ-phosphate from ATP to serine, threonine or tyrosine residues in target proteins. They are traditionally classified as protein serine/threonine kinases and protein tyrosine kinases based on the amino acid to which they transfer the phosphate group. Protein tyrosine kinases play vital roles in numerous pathways that regulate growth, development and oncogenesis in animals. However, no protein tyrosine kinase has been cloned so far from plants. The sequence motif, CW(X)6RPXF of sub-domain XI is well conserved among biochemically characterized protein tyrosine kinases from human, rat, mice, worm, fruitfly and Dictyostelium. To seek plant genes encoding tyrosine kinase, we have performed extensive genome-wide analysis of Arabidopsis thaliana using the delineated tyrosine kinase from animal systems. Repetitive database mining with CW(X)6RPXF sequence motif revealed the presence of 57 different protein kinases that have tyrosine kinase motifs. Myosin light chain protein kinase was identified as false positive with this motif. Multiple sequence alignment of all the 57 kinases indicated the presence of twelve conserved sub-domains in their kinase catalytic domain. Out of the 12 sub-domains present in protein kinases, sub-domain VIb confers serine/threonine kinase Specificity and sub-domains VIII and XI confer tyrosine kinase specificity. All the 57 kinases were Verified to contain CW(X) 6RPXF in sub-domain XI. However, the catalytic domain of all the catalogued kinases contain KXXN motif in sub-domain VIb, which is indicative of serine/threonine Kinase specificity. None of the kinases had the tyrosine kinase consensus motif RAA or ARR in sub-domain VIb. Thus, the catalytic domains of all the identified Arabidopsis protein kinases have motifs for serine/threonine specificity in sub-domain VIb and tyrosine kinase motif in sub-domain XI. These results indicate that perhaps all the kinases belong to the dual-specificity kinase family. Hence, we have tentatively named these protein sequences as STY (serine/threonine/tyrosine) protein kinases. To examine the relationships of Arabidopsis STY protein kinases, a topographic cladogram was constructed. Casein kinase 1 was used as an outgroup to perceive the true class of STY protein kinase family. Neighbor joining tree was constructed with the full-length protein sequences following the alignments. Dendrogram of STY protein kinases suggested that the kinases are mainly clustered into four groups. Group I includes kinases related to ATN1-like kinases, peanut STY related kinases, soybean GmPK6-like kinases and ATMRK1-like kinases. Group II consists of MAP3K-like kinases, CTR1 and EDR1 related kinases. Group III includes protein kinases that harbor ankyrin domain repeat motifs. These kinases are related to Medicago sativa ankyrin kinase, MsAPK1. Group IV consists of light sensory kinases that are related to Ceratodon purpureus phytochrome kinase. C. purpureus light sensory kinase has both phytochrome and protein kinase domains. However, the protein kinases of group IV do not have a phytochrome domain. BLAST analysis was performed using CW(X)6RPXF motif against all the available plant sequences in the database. We retrieved 11 rice protein kinases and 14 Dictyostelium kinases. In addition, we obtained STY protein kinases from wheat, barley, soybean, tomato, beech and alfalfa. Dendrogram analysis indicated that the plant STY protein kinases are clustered in similar manner as observed for Arabidopsis. Large number of sequences were retrieved when the tyrosine kinase motif CW(X)6RPXF was used to perform BLAST analysis against all the known sequences from animals. As large numbers of protein tyrosine kinases are available in animals, we have used representative kinases of each family towards the construction of phylogenetic tree. The main difference between the animal and plant tyrosine kinases is in the consensus motif conferring the tyrosine and serine/threonine specificity in the sub-domain VIb. Animal tyrosine kinases have consensus ARR/RAA in sub-domain VIb and plant kinases have KXXN which is indicative of serine/threonine specificity. Expression analysis of Arabidopsis STY protein kinases was performed using Genevestigator online search tool Meta-Analyzer. Genes were grouped based on their relative expression levels during a specific growth stage, in a particular organ or following different environmental stresses. Various kinases are highly expressed in stamens and seeds while some kinases are expressed ubiquitously. A number of biotic and abiotic factors upregulated plant STY protein kinases. Gene expression data suggests the importance of STY protein kinases in plant growth and development. Genome-wide analysis is supported by phosphoproteomics in Arabidopsis seedlings. Evidence for tyrosine phosphorylated proteins is provided by alkaline hydrolysis, phosphoamino acid analysis and peptide mass fingerprinting. Alkaline treatment detected two proteins corresponding to 46 and 37.5 kD. Phosphoamino acids analysis confirmed their dual-specificity nature. MALDI mass spectrometry and peptide mass fingerprinting analysis identified these two proteins as ATN1 and peanut serine/threonine/tyrosine protein kinase like protein from Arabidopsis. To further support the in silico approach, we have overexpressed one of the identified Arabidopsis thaliana serine/threonine/tyrosine protein kinases (AtSTYPK) in E. coli. The recombinant kinase was induced with IPTG and purified by using nickel-nitrilotriacetic acid affinity chromatography. AtSTYPK exhibited a strong preference for manganese over magnesium for kinase activity. The autophosphorylation activity of AtSTYPK was inhibited by the addition of calcium to reaction buffer containing manganese. The rate of autophosphorylation reaction was linear with increasing time and protein concentration. The AtSTYPK phosphorylated histone H1 (type III-S), and myelin basic protein (MBP) in substrate phosphorylation reaction and it did not phosphorylate casein or enolase. To see whether calcium or magnesium inhibits phosphorylation of MBP, we have performed the reaction in the presence of combination of different metal ions. The MBP phosphorylation reaction is more efficient in the presence of Mg2++ Mn2+ than Ca2++ Mn2+ under the same conditions. The recombinant kinase autophosphorylated on serine, threonine and tyrosine residues and phosphorylated myelin basic protein on threonine and tyrosine residues. The AtSTYPK harbors a manganese-dependent serine/threonine kinase domain, COG3642. H248 and S265 on COG3642 are conserved in AtSTYPK and the site-directed mutation of H248 to alanine resulted in loss of serine/threonine kinase activity, but the mutation of S265 to alanine showed a slight increase in its kinase activity. The protein kinase activity is regulated by various mechanisms that include autophosphorylation, protein phosphorylation by other kinases and by the action of regulatory domains or subunits. The role of tyrosine residues in the regulation of peanut dual-specificity kinase activity is well documented, but the importance of serine and threonine residues in the regulation of dual-specificity protein kinase is not studied so far. The kinase activity is generally regulated by phosphorylation of one or more residues within the kinase activation loop. The role of threonine residues in the kinase activation loop and the TEY motif of AtSTYPK were investigated in the present study. Four threonine residues in the activation loop and a T208 in the TEY sequence motif were converted to alanine to study their role in the regulation of kinase activity. The protein kinase activity was abolished when T208 and T293 of the activation loop were converted to alanine. Interestingly, the conversion of T284 in the activation loop to alanine resulted in an increase in both auto- and substrate phosphorylations. The mutation of T288 and T291 to alanine had no effect on kinase activity. There are eight serine residues in the kinase catalytic domain of AtSTYPK and surprisingly there is no serine residue in the kinase activation loop. So it is worthwhile to see how phosphorylation of serine residues regulates the dual-specificity protein kinase activity. The role of each serine residue was studied individually by substituting them with alanine. Serines at positions 215, 259, 269 and 315 regulate the kinase activity both in terms of autophosphorylation and substrate phosphorylation of myelin basic protein. The mutation of serine 265 to alanine resulted in slight increase in auto- and substrate phosphorylations, suggesting that it could be autoinhibitory in function. The other serine residues at positions 165, 181 and 360 did not show any change in the phosphorylation status when compared to wild-type AtSTYPK. In conclusion, this data suggests the importance of serine and threonine residues in the regulation of dual-specificity protein kinase activity and emphasizes the complexity of regulation of dual-specificity protein kinases in plants. To summarise, this study suggests that tyrosine phosphorylation in plants could be brought about only by dual-specificity protein kinases that phosphorylate on serine, threonine and tyrosine residues. This raises an interesting possibility that plants lack classical tyrosine kinases. The results provide a first report of manganese-dependent dual-specificity kinase from plant systems. This data also suggests that plant dual-specificity kinases undergo phosphorylation at multiple amino acid residues and their activity is regulated by various mechanisms, suggesting that they could be regulated by different mechanisms at different stages of plant growth and development. However, the role of dual-specificity kinases in planta has to be understood by mutant analysis in order to assign the physiological roles to these kinases. Further studies are needed to identify the upstream kinase(s) and downstream targets. Determination of physiological functions for dual-specificity protein kinases raises an important challenge in future in the area of plant signal transduction.

Οι όγκοι εγκεφάλου του ανθρώπου είναι φαινοτυπικά και γονοτυπικά ετερογενείς. Υπάρχουν σημαντικά κενά στην κατανόηση των μοριακών οδών που εμπλέκονται στην γένεση και ανάπτυξη των νεοπλασμάτων αυτών, καθώς και στη βιολογική και κλινική συμπεριφορά τους. Δεδομένου ότι: α) υπάρχει ένας αυξανόμενος όγκος πληροφοριών σχετικά με την εμπλοκή των υποδοχέων νευροτροφινών Trks (υποδοχείς κινάσης τυροσίνης) στην παθογένεια των νεοπλασμάτων του ΚΝΣ, β) οι νευροτροφίνες μπορούν να ρυθμίζουν τη γονιδιακή έκφραση στο νευρικό σύστημα μέσω του μεταγραφικού παράγοντα STAT-5 με μηχανισμό ανεξάρτητο της ενεργοποίησης της κινάσης JAK-2, γ) η οδός μεταγωγής σήματος JAK-2/STAT-5 ενεργοποιείται από την ερυθροποιητίνη (Epo) (μέσω δέσμευσής της με τον υποδοχέα της EpoR) η οποία πρόσφατα έχει θεωρηθεί ως παράγοντας-κλειδί της αύξησης των όγκων λόγω των αντιαποπτωτικών και αγγειογενετικών ιδιοτήτων και δυνητικός στόχος ογκολογικών θεραπευτικών στρατηγικών, δ) η Epo διαντιδρά με τον παράγοντα αγγειογένεσης VEGF ενδυναμώνοντας την αγγειοδραστικότητά του και συχνά οι δύο αυτοί αναπτυξιακοί παράγοντες συνεκφράζονται, ε) ερευνητικά δεδομένα υποδεικνύουν ένα δυνητικό ρόλο του άξονα VEGF/JAK-2/ STAT-5 στην αγγειογένεση στον καρκίνο και στ) σε πολλά νεοπλάσματα, τα κύτταρα του όγκου καθώς και τα μακροφάγα του στρώματος εκφράζουν τους παράγοντες λεμφαγγειογένεσης VEGF-C και VEGF-D οι οποίοι μέσω του υποδοχέα τους VEGFR-3 (υποδοχέας κινάσης τυροσίνης) έχει βρεθεί ότι προάγουν την αγγειογένεση στα νεοπλάσματα αυτά, ο στόχος της παρούσας εργασίας είναι η μορφολογική μελέτη της έκφρασης των υποδοχέων κινάσης τυροσίνης Trks (υποδοχείς νευροτροφινών) και VEGFR-3 και η συσχέτισή τους με την οδό μεταγωγής σήματος EpoR/ JAK-2/ STAT-5 στα νεοπλάσματα του εγκεφάλου στον άνθρωπο. Για την ανίχνευση των Trks, EpoR, JAK-2, STAT-5 και VEGFR-3, χρησιμοποιήθηκε η ανοσοϊστοχημική μέθοδος σε διαδοχικές τομές ιστού πάχους 4μm, μονιμοποιημένου σε φορμόλη και εγκλεισμένου σε παραφίνη. Χρησιμοποιήθηκαν ειδικά αντισώματα έναντι των προς μελέτη πρωτεϊνών. Εξετάσθηκαν συνολικά 92 όγκοι εγκεφάλου (50 αστροκυτώματα: 5 πιλοκυτταρικά αστροκυττώματα WHO grade I, 6 διάχυτα αστροκυττώματα WHO grade II, 10 αναπλαστικά αστροκυττώματα. WHO grade III και 29 πολύμορφα γλοιοβλαστώματα. WHO grade IV, 8 ολιγοδενδρογλοιώματα, 6 επενδυμώματα, 5 μυελοβλαστώματα και 23 μηνιγγιώματα). Επιπλέον, στη μελέτη συμπεριλήφθηκαν τομές ιστού φυσιολογικού εγκεφάλου. Στην παρούσα εργασία, η πλειονότητα των αστροκυττωμάτων ανεξαρτήτως βαθμού κακοήθειας, έδειξε μέτρια έως έντονη κυτταροπλασματική ανοσοδραστικότητα για τους υποδοχείς TrkA (57%), TrkB (56%) και TrkC (46%). Όλα τα ολιγοδενδρογλοιώματα και τα επενδυμώματα που εξετάσθηκαν ήταν αρνητικά για τους υποδοχείς Trk ενώ έκφραση των υποδοχέων ανιχνεύθηκε σε μικρό ποσοστό των μυελοβλαστωμάτων. Στις ανοσοθετικές περιοχές των όγκων, το τοίχωμα των αγγείων ήταν έντονα θετικό για τον υποδοχέα TrkB. Σε ένα σημαντικό ποσοστό αστροκυττωμάτων (41%), επενδυμωμάτων (33%) και μηνιγγιωμάτων (48%) ανιχνεύθηκε έκφραση του EpoR, ενώ τα ολιγοδενδρογλοιώματα και τα μυελοβλαστώματα που εξετάσθηκαν ήταν αρνητικά. Συνέκφραση των JAK-2/STAT-5 ανιχνεύθηκε στο 39% των αστροκυττωμάτων, στο 43% των ολιγοδενδρογλοιωμάτων, στο 50% των επενδυμωμάτων και σε όλα (100%) τα μυελοβλαστώματα που συμπεριλήφθηκαν στη μελέτη. Η πλειονότητα των μηνιγγιωμάτων έδειξε ασθενή έως μηδενική έκφραση των πρωτεινών JAK-2 και STAT-5. Σε κάποιους όγκους, ανιχνεύθηκε έκφραση της πρωτείνης STAT-5 ενώ ήταν αρνητικοί για την κινάση JAK-2. Επίσης, βρέθηκαν όγκοι JAK-2- ανοσοθετικοί/ EpoR-ανοσοαρνητικοί. Στα ενδοθηλιακά κύτταρα των αγγείων των όγκων ανιχνεύθηκε έκφραση των EpoR, JAK-2 και/ή STAT-5. Η μελέτη της έκφρασης του VEGFR-3 έδειξε την καθολική σχεδόν έκφραση του υποδοχέα στο ενδοθήλιο των αγγείων, στους όγκους εγκεφάλου που εξετάσθηκαν, καθώς και στο τοίχωμα μεγαλύτερων αγγείων εκτός της περιοχής των όγκων. Επίσης, σε κάποιες περιπτώσεις, παρατηρήθηκε έκφραση του υποδοχέα σε νεοπλασματικά κύτταρα. Στα αστροκυτταρικά γλοιώματα, η έκφραση των pan-Trk, TrkB και TrkC σχετίζεται στατιστικά σημαντικά με την έκφραση STAT-5 ενώ δεν υπάρχει στατιστικά σημαντική συσχέτιση της έκφρασης του υποδοχέα TrkA με την έκφραση των JAK-2 και STAT-5, καθώς και της έκφρασης των Trks με την έκφραση της κινάσης JAK-2. Στα αστροκυτταρικά γλοιώματα, η έκφραση JAK-2 σχετίζεται στατιστικά σημαντικά με την έκφραση STAT-5, ενώ η έκφραση των JAK-2 και STAT-5 δεν σχετίζεται σημαντικά με την έκφραση EpoR. Στα επενδυμώματα υπάρχει στατιστικά σημαντική συσχέτιση μεταξύ της έκφρασης JAK-2, STAT-5 και EpoR. Επίσης, στα μυελοβλαστώματα υπάρχει στατιστικά σημαντική συσχέτιση μεταξύ της έκφρασης JAK-2 και STAT-5. Σε σημαντικό ποσοστό των εξετασθέντων όγκων –ιδιαίτερα των γλοιωμάτων- συνεκφράζονται οι υποδοχείς EpoR και VEGFR-3 στο ενδοθήλιο και στα λεία μυικά κύτταρα των αγγείων. Συγκεκριμένα, έκφραση και των δύο υποδοχέων στο τοίχωμα των αγγείων του όγκου, ανιχνεύθηκε, στο 58% των αστροκυτταρικών γλοιωμάτων, στο 67% των ολιγοδενδρογλοιωμάτων, στο 50% των επενδυμωμάτων, στο 20% των μυελοβλαστωμάτων και στο 33% των μηνιγγιωμάτων. Επίσης συνέκφραση των υποδοχέων TrkB και VEGFR-3 στο ενδοθήλιο των αγγείων των όγκων ανιχνεύθηκε στο 57% των αστροκυτταρικών γλοιωμάτων. Η έκφραση στο ενδοθήλιο των αγγείων των όγκων (α) του υποδοχέα TrkB στην πλειονότητα των TrkB-ανοσοθετικών όγκων, (β) των EpoR, JAK-2 και/ή STAT-5 σε αρκετούς όγκους ανεξάρτητα της ανοσοθετικότητας των νεοπλασματικών κυττάρων για τις πρωτεΐνες αυτές και (γ) του VEGFR-3 σχεδόν σε όλους του εξετασθέντες όγκους, οδηγεί στο συμπέρασμα ότι οι παραπάνω παράγοντες πιθανόν συνεργάζονται στην αγγειογενετική διαδικασία στους όγκους εγκεφάλου. Η παρούσα μελέτη απέδειξε την παρουσία των: Trks, EpoR, JAK-2, STAT-5 και VEGFR-3 σε σημαντικό ποσοστό των όγκων εγκεφάλου στον άνθρωπο. Είναι απαραίτητο να διενεργηθούν λειτουργικές μελέτες των σηματοδοτικών οδών που προκύπτουν από την ενεργοποίηση των Trks, EpoR και VEGFR-3, προκειμένου να αποσαφηνισθούν οι πιθανές διαντιδράσεις αυτών των οδών στη διαδικασία της ογκογένεσης, γεγονός που θα μπορούσε να οδηγήσει στο σχεδιασμό νέων θεραπευτικών στρατηγικών για την αποτελεσματική αντιμετώπιση των όγκων εγκεφάλου στον άνθρωπο. / Brain tumors are phenotypically and genotypically heterogeneous. Significant gaps exist in current understanding of the molecular pathways involved in the genesis, progression, and biological and clinical behavior of brain tumors. Considering that : a) there is a growing amount of evidence implicating the neurotophin receptors Trks (receptor tyrosine kinases) in the pathogenesis of CNS tumors, b) neurotrophins may regulate neuronal gene expression via transcription factor STAT-5 in a JAK-2 independent manner, c) the JAK-2/STAT-5 signaling pathway is activated by Epo (recently characterized as a key factor for tumor growth) through its receptor EpoR, d) Epo is known to interact synergistically with vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), a potent angiogenic factor, and enhance its vascular activity, and these two growth factors, are often co-expressed, e) recent data suggest a potential role for a VEGF/JAK-2/STAT-5 axis in tumor angiogenesis and f) in many tumors, VEGF-C and -D are produced by tumor cells as well as by tumor-associated macrophages and through their receptor VEGFR-3 are involved in tumor angiogenesis and growth, the aim of this thesis is the morphological study of the expression patterns of the receptor tyrosine kinases Trks (neurotrophin receptors) and VEGFR-3 and their correlation with the EpoR/ JAK-2/ STAT-5 signaling pathway in human brain tumors. Immunohistochemistry was performed on formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded, 4μm thick serial sections using the anti-Mouse/ Rabbit Poly HRP IHC Detection kit (CHEMICON International, Inc.). Antibodies against the Trk receptors, EpoR, JAK-2, STAT-5 and VEGFR-3, were used. A total of 92 brain tumors (50 astrocytic gliomas: 5 pilocytic astrocytomas; WHO grade I, 6 diffuse fibrillary astrocytomas; WHO grade II, 10 anaplastic astrocytomas; WHO grade III and 29 glioblastomas multiforme; WHO grade IV, 8 oligodendrogliomas, 6 ependymomas, 5 medulloblastomas, and 23 meningiomas) were included in this study. Normal human brain tissue was obtained postmortem (2 males). The present study demonstrated moderate to strong, granular cytoplasmic immunoreactivity in the majority of astrocytomas, for TrkA (57%), TrkB (56%) and TrkC receptors (46%), independently of grade. All the oligodendrogliomas and the ependymomas examined, were Trk immunonegative while a small percentage of medulloblastomas exhibited Trk immunopositivity. The endothelium of tumor vessels, in the immunopositive areas of the tumors, showed conspicuous immunoreactivity for TrkB receptor. A significant percentage of astrocytomas (41%), ependymomas (33%) and meningiomas (48%) displayed EpoR immunoreactivity. Oligodendrogliomas and medulloblastomas were EpoR- immunonegative. JAK-2/STAT-5 co-expression was detected in 39% of astrocytomas, 43% of oligodendrogliomas, 50% of ependymomas and in all (100%) the medulloblastomas examined. In contrast, most of the meningiomas showed weak or no immunoreactivity for JAK-2 and STAT-5 proteins. Some tumors exhibited STAT-5 immunoreactivity being JAK-2-immunonegative and others were JAK-2-immunopositive being EpoR- immunonegative. In some tumors - independently of EpoR immunoreactivity in tumors cells- the endothelium of tumor capillaries as well as florid angioproliferative changes and/or proliferations of smooth muscle cells showed conspicuous immunoreactivity for EpoR. Furthermore, endothelial cells of some tumor vessels showed JAK-2 and/or STAT-5 immunoreactivity. The present study demonstrated the almost catholic VEGFR-3 expression in the endothelium of tumor vessels in the brain tumor specimens examined, as well as in the smooth muscle cells in peritumoral vessels. In some tumors, the tumor cells expressed VEGFR-3receptor. In astrocytic gliomas, pan-Trk, TrkB and TrkC expression was significantly correlated with STAT-5 expression but not with JAK-2 whereas TrkA expression was not significantly correlated with either JAK-2 or STAT-5 expression. In astrocytic gliomas, JAK-2 expression was significantly correlated with STAT-5 expression whereas JAK-2 and STAT-5 expression were not significantly correlated with EpoR expression. In ependymomas, strong relationship between JAK-2, STAT-5 and EpoR expression was confined. Furthermore, in medulloblastomas, strong relationship between JAK-2 and STAT-5 expression was detected. A significant percentage of astrocytomas (58%), oligodendrogliomas (67%), ependymomas (50%), medulloblastomas (20%) and meningiomas (33%), displayed EpoR and VEGFR-3 co-expression in tumor vessels. Additionally, TrkB and VEGFR-3 co-expression was detected in the endothelium of tumor capillaries in 57% of the astrocytomas examined. The above results indicate the existence of a ligand (other than Epo)-dependent or independent JAK-2 activation that leads to the constitutive activation of STAT-5 as well as the existence of at least one mechanism, other than the Trk - dependent gene induction by STAT-5 that results to the latter’s constitutive activation in these tumors. Furthermore, the finding of EpoR, JAK-2 and/or STAT-5 immunoreactivity in endothelial cells of tumor vessels, supports the ongoing notion of an angiogenic role of Epo in tumor neovascularization. The presence of TrkB, EpoR, JAK-2, STAT-5 and VEGFR-3 in the endothelium of tumor vessels in the brain tumors specimens included in this study, implicate these factors as possible critical players in the process of angiogenesis. The present study demonstrates the expression of Trks, EpoR, JAK-2, STAT-5 and VEGFR-3 in a significant percentage of human brain tumors. Functional studies of the Trks, EpoR and VEGFR-3-activated signaling pathways, are necessary in order to clarify the meaning of a possible cross-talking between these pathways in the process of oncogenesis, the deep understanding of which, could lead to innovative new strategies for drug targeting to human brain tumors.

Overall survival of the metastatic forms of epithelial derived cancers, especially head and neck squamous cell carcinomas (HNSCC), has not significantly improved even with the application of aggressive combined modality approaches incorporating radiation and chemotherapy. Cumulative evidence implicates the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) as an important therapeutic target in HNSCC. We have previously demonstrated that the combination of lovastatin, a potent inhibitor of the mevalonate pathway, with EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitors induced robust synergistic cytotoxicity. However, the use of high dose statins in our clinical trial was associated with significant toxicities including higher than anticipated rate of muscle pathologies. Our goal was to uncover novel downstream targets of the mevalonate pathway that may enhance the efficacy or limit toxicities of this novel combination therapeutic approach. In this study we have demonstrated that GGTI-298, an inhibitor of protein geranylgeranylation, through its ability to disrupt the actin cytoskeleton, inhibits EGFR dimerization and cellular trafficking. This novel mechanism targeting the EGFR has clinical implications as GGTI-298 in combination with tarceva, a clinically relevant EGFR inhibitor, showed enhanced cytotoxicity and inhibitory effects on EGFR activation and its downstream signaling.

Diss. (sammanfattning) Stockholm : Karolinska institutet, 2007. / Härtill 4 uppsatser.

Dissertation (Ph.D.)--University of South Florida, 2007. / Title from PDF of title page. Document formatted into pages; contains 192 pages. Includes vita. Includes bibliographical references.