Climate change is a daily challenge that we are faced with, it has become a part of our lives and is altering how we live. Architecture plays a vital role in life and it is crucial for architecture to be able to adapt to the climate conditions that may arise. A large percentage of the population living near coastal cities are faced with dangers of sea level rise, flooding, and coastal storms. Architects must design for the people within these cities or else their lives will be lost. Designers understand the catastrophic we are currently facing and are finding innovative ways to protect our cities. From rebuilding the coastal lines to making cities to imitate being a sponge. These solutions all play an important role in the future generations, each design can not work independently from each other and must work cohesively in order to have a resilient city. This thesis explores the possibility of having a dense neighborhood adjacent to a city. This neighborhood is purely independent from the main city utilities so that if a major event did occur then no systems will be interrupted. Adaptable architecture is able to change over time and with the growth of population. The design goal is to offer an optimal living option for people, the neighborhood is designed to be able to grow with a family and offer aging in place options while continuously growing over time. The structure is able to grow by using a modular pontoon system that can be attached to another module to create an interconnected city. These modules are Biocrete structures that contain the systems and utilities for a building to function giving full flexibility of what can be constructed on top. Since the city is forever growing the vertical core acts as a home for a mobile crane to be attached and assist with the development of residential units or the larger urban-scape. This crane can also be positioned on a small mobile barge that floats around the city to serve any location at a given time. / Master of Architecture / Architecture must be adaptable in a climate changing environment otherwise there will be catastrophic failure in society. Coastal cities are faced with the most climate challenges with sea level rise, flooding, storm surge, hurricanes, tsunami's, etc. Due to these challenges it is vital to have architecture to be resilient and still remain functional after a storm. The main challenge that is explored is how can we overcome the losses that are caused by flooding in coastal cities. This exploration suggests the idea of floating urbanization that is completely independent from the city and is able to adapt with any sea level elevation. The initial response to flooding is how can we keep the water out when in reality water cannot be contained over a long period of time. Instead, the question should be how can we live with water? The solution is to literally live with it, to design a city that floats on it and is able to move with the sea level. This eliminates the worry about your home being flooded and offers another option of living. This city is a fully adaptable structure that grows with families and the population at the same time. Each residential unit offers modular components to allow for the unit to expand given the size of the family, these residential modules sit on top a floating modular pontoon that can then be attached to another pontoon to allow the city to grow horizontally. This idea is not foreign nor new, it has been a way of living for some people for many years from a new single family home in Denmark to a whole floating village in Peru. It is not a new concept but it will be a more frequent design choice as climate change becomes more prevalent.

Women's organizations in informal settlements located in peri-urban areas of Peruvian Amazon cities have been carrying out programs for solving nutrition, food, health, and income generation problems in their communities. This is a way of women's local action of self-help and self-reliance to transform their marginalized ways of living. This study focuses on two factors in the scope of women's organizations: (1) to examine what causes household participation in women's organizations. (2) To explore what type of women's empowerment leads to social development, assuming that women go through a process of empowerment as a result of their participation in women's organizations. The study data consists of a case study in one informal settlement in Pucallpa, 9 de Octubre, and key-informant interviews of women participating in women's organizations, and life histories of four women leaders. The quantitative analysis focuses on three hypotheses: (1) Single women-headed households participate more frequently in women's organizations than men-headed households. (2) Households with children under six years old are more likely to participate in women's organizations than households without. (3) Households in remote locations of the informal settlement are more likely to participate in women's organizations. The qualitative analysis focuses in three areas: (1) women's roles as community managers, (2) women's organizations as agents to produce structural change and (3) the relationship between women's organizations and women's empowerment. Findings cast doubt upon the first hypothesis by showing that single women-headed households were not economically vulnerable as it was expected and that their participation in women's organizations was not as frequent as the participation of men-headed households. Furthermore, men-headed households seem to benefit more from women's organizations than single women-headed households. The presence of children does not predict participation in women's organizations. Also, it is interesting that households in more remote and inaccessible locations seem to participate more in women's organizations. The study develops the argument that women's organizations, which bring in knowledge and more than partial problem-solving solutions, contribute to women's empowerment and household change that lead to social development. The study concludes that the types of empowerment that lead to social development are the cultural, and social because they are the ones that are more effective in bringing changes at the household and community levels. However, the economic empowerment should not be disregarded and should be considered in the formula because it provides one of the prime needs of urban poor women: income in their household. / Master of Urban and Regional Planning

Urbanization can negatively affect the capacity of ecosystems to provide services that support human life. Edible green infrastructure (EGI) can increase cultural and environmental services in urban and peri-urban communities. Instrumental in the use of EGI are local governments, who are in a position to pass supportive policies. For this research, we completed a qualitative study of EGI policy processes in U.S. cities and a mixed-methods study of EGI challenges and opportunities in small towns. Our first objective was to understand how and why EGI policy develops. We interviewed twelve policy actors from six U.S. cities that have formalized EGI ordinances. Major drivers of EGI policy were: 1) improving public health; 2) securing land tenure; 3) managing vacant lands; 4) accommodating for population growth; and 5) the local food movement. Common policymaking steps included: 1) local communities initiate EGI policy process; 2) city governments respond by working with communities to draft EGI ordinances; 3) abrupt changes to land use policies result in a policy image supportive of EGI as a public land management strategy; and 4) during emergence of the new land use paradigm, incremental changes reinforce this image. We also learned how certain challenges and policy actor recommendations for minimizing obstacles affect the policy process. Our second objective was to understand EGI adoption in small towns. We surveyed 68 mayors of small towns (<25,000) in Virginia to study local leader perspectives regarding implementation and policy. The greatest perceived barrier to EGI adoption was long-term maintenance, whereas opportunities included civic benefits such as education and community-building. Most towns had not intentionally used EGI on public land, nor did they have compatible land use codes. Open-ended responses suggest that mayors have different views about the role policy should play in EGI adoption. We used mayoral perceptions about the constituent support for public green space, the implementation of edible woody perennial species, and available public space for EGI to group towns into unique types. Four groups were identified in a K-means cluster analysis: 1) Ambivalent and Resource-Poor; 2) Optimistic and Capable; 3) Doubtful and Unsupported; and 4) Unsure with Potential. One-way ANOVA and Tukey's HSD post-hoc analysis (α=0.05) showed that Optimistic and Capable were significantly more likely than Doubtful and Unsupported to intend to plant EGI and benefit from government support for edible, woody perennials on public land. EGI may be more practical for towns with greater backing for public green space, more available land, and higher rates of favorable attitudes. / Master of Science / The global movement of people from rural to urban and suburban areas has impacted ecosystem health and human well-being. A land management strategy that can improve environmental and public health is edible green infrastructure (EGI), which is small-scale food production in and around built structures. Local governments can pass policies that increase the use of EGI in public spaces. To learn more about how local governments view EGI and the role that policy might play, we completed two studies. In our first study, we interviewed 12 people from 6 U.S. cities who were involved in the development of EGI policies. The purpose of this study was to learn how and why cities pass EGI policies. Reasons for policy adoption included: 1) improving public health for their residents; 2) ensuring EGI as a permanent rather than temporary land use; 3) finding a better use for vacant properties; 4) setting aside green space for current and future populations; and 5) increasing local and healthy food access. Cities shared the following policy development steps: 1) local community leaders demonstrated that EGI policy was needed; 2) government leaders worked together with residents to draft an EGI ordinance; 3) ordinances were passed that significantly changed how public land could be used; and 4) they passed other, smaller policies to make the use of EGI easier for residents. In our second study, we surveyed 68 mayors of small towns (< 25,000 people) in Virginia, U.S. The purpose of this study was to learn what local leaders think about the use of EGI in the public spaces and whether EGI policies would be useful. Long-term maintenance was the biggest barrier and the greatest opportunities included education, recreation, social gathering, and community building. Mayors had differing opinions on whether policies pertaining to EGI on public land were a good idea for their towns, and several pointed out that residents already had access to private land for food production. Using mayors' responses, we grouped towns based on the following characteristics: 1) how much public land could be used for food production; 2) how supportive residents were of existing green space; and 3) how residents thought about the use of EGI on public land. We found that small towns in Virginia could be described as; 1) Ambivalent and Resource-Poor; 2) Optimistic and Capable; 3) Doubtful and Unsupported; or 4) Unsure with Potential. "Optimistic and Capable" towns were more likely to be supported by municipal policies and budgets and to use EGI for managing public land, whereas "Doubtful and Unsupported" towns were least likely to be supported by local government and to use EGI. In summary, EGI may be more practical for towns with greater backing for public green space, more available land, and more favorable views on food production on public land.

Conversion of native forests to turfgrass-dominated residential landscapes under a wide range of management practices results in dramatic changes to vegetation and soils, which may affect soil carbon storage. To better understand the effects of landscape conversion and management on soil carbon, we conducted a study on residential properties in the Valley and Ridge physiographic province of southwest Virginia to compare soil carbon storage and dynamics between turfgrass landscapes and the surrounding mixed oak forests from which they were developed. Sixty-four residential properties ranging from 5 to 52 years since site development were investigated. Soil samples were collected from lawns and adjacent forest stands to a depth of 30 cm and analyzed for carbon and nitrogen content. Additional measurements taken were soil bulk density, temperature, moisture, and total soil CO₂ efflux rate. Homeowners participating in the study completed a survey on their lawn management practices so that the effects of specific practices (e.g. fertilization) and intensity levels on carbon dynamics could be analyzed. Also included in the survey were 11 questions regarding the homeowners' commitment to the environment. Homeowners were assigned an environmental commitment score based on their responses which was compared with lawn management practices in order to identify any connection between environmental attitude and lawn management practices. Total soil carbon content to 30 cm depth of lawn (6.5 kg C/m²) and forest (7.1 kg C/m²) marginally differed (P=0.08); however, lawn soil contained significantly greater C than forest soil at the 20-30 cm depth (0.010 vs. 0.007 g C/cm³, P=.0137). There was a weak negative relationship between carbon in the lawn and time since development at the 20-30 cm depth (P=0.08), but no significant relationship between time and C content at shallower depths. We found a positive relationship between time since development and percent C of lawn at the 0-5 cm depth (P=0.04), whereas there was a negative relationship with percent C and time at the 20-30 cm depth (P=0.03). Based on the homeowner survey, we found a positive correlation between lawn fertilization frequency and both lawn nitrogen content (P=.07) and lawn carbon content (P=.0005) in the top 0-5 cm of soil. Nitrogen content was greater in lawn than forest soil at the 0-5 cm depth (0.0025 vs. 0.0018 g/cm³³, P<.0001) and the 5-10 cm depth (0.0013 vs. 0.0009 g/cm³, P <.0001). There was a positive relationship (P=0.059) between overall environmental commitment score and level of management intensity. Higher environmental commitment (EC) score corresponded with a higher level of management intensity (fertilizer and pesticide use). Our results indicate that converting unmanaged Appalachian hardwood forest into managed, turf-grass dominated residential homesites results in similar soil organic concentration and depth distribution as the previous forest within a short period of time following development. Although total soil carbon does not differ between lawn and forest, lawn may develop greater density at 20-30cm depth over time. Fertilization enhances carbon and nitrogen content in the upper 0-5cm in lawns. Homeowners who feel that they are more strongly committed to the environment are more likely to apply higher levels of fertilizer to their lawn. / Master of Science

Aquatic biodiversity continues to decline as humans modify the landscape. A population-level approach is necessary to address the mechanisms of impairment in urban stream habitats. When estimating population-level parameters, incomplete detection of individuals must be accounted for to ensure unbiased estimates. In this thesis, I examined differences in the detection probabilities of stream fishes, and used estimates of size/age-specific detection probabilities to reduce bias in estimates of the reproductive success of various fish species in urban and forested stream habitats. In Chapter 1, I examined differences in detection probabilities of stream fishes among electrofishing passes and size/age groups in the middle New River basin, Virginia. I also examined differences in detection probabilities between two physiographic regions: the middle New River basin, and the upper Wabash River basin, Indiana; and evaluated differences between single- and multiple-season estimation methods. I found that for most species, detection probabilities do not differ among electrofishing passes, size/age classes, between the two regions, or between single- and multiple-season estimation methods. I used size/age-specific estimates of detection probabilities to remove bias from relative abundance estimates of steam fish populations in Chapter 2. In Chapter 2, I examined the reproductive success of six lithophilic and speleophilic fishes in urban and forested reaches of 2nd-4th Strahler-order streams in the middle New River basin. I found that binary classification is a poor method of quantifying reproductive success, that the age distributions of many lithophilic and speleophilic species are dominated by adult individuals in urban habitats, and that the population growth rates of speleophils is reduced in urban habitats. These results suggest that although detection probabilities may be equal among various sources of variation, managers should verify this assumption before assuming equal detectability. The results also suggest that reduced reproductive success of speleophilic and lithophilic species in urban stream habitats may be a mechanism of their impairment. / Master of Science

The effect of urbanization on previously agricultural watersheds is an increasingly important issue for watershed planners. Urbanization increases runoff and pollutant loadings to the watershed outlet. Watershed planners in areas that previously had little impervious cover must now consider the effects of new roads and buildings on hydrologic processes. The ANSWERS-2000 watershed model was modified to simulate watersheds with mixtures of agricultural and urban areas. In addition, components were added to simulate atmospheric deposition and urban management practices, including wet ponds, dry ponds, and infiltration trenches. The modified model was evaluated on two watersheds in Blacksburg, Virginia, including a subwatershed of Stroubles Creek and a large parking lot on the Virginia Tech campus with a dry pond at its outlet. The model predicted the hydrology and pollutant losses for the year 1999 from the Stroubles Creek watershed within 50% of the observed values after calibration. Prediction errors were much higher for the parking lot and dry pond simulation of the period of time from August 1995 to February 1996. For the parking lot inflow to the dry pond, errors ranged from 0 to 100%. For the dry pond effluent, errors for runoff and sediment losses were -11.5 and 60.1%, respectively, and nutrient losses were poorly predicted (greater than 100% error). There was considerable uncertainty as to the quality of the observed data and this may account for some of the predicted sediment and nutrient loss errors. The modified model was applied to the Battlefield Green Watershed in Hanover County, Virginia to demonstrate the watershed response to development in that watershed. As simulated, sediment and nutrient losses were 30 to 50 times higher after development. The model is intended for use on watersheds with an impervious cover of 30% or less, due to the increased difficulty in accurately quantifying the hydrology of highly urbanized watersheds and because of uncertainty in atmospheric deposition rates on such watersheds. The pond subroutines are very simplified, and limit simulation to ponds with simple geometries. / Master of Science

Low Impact Development (LID) is gaining popularity as a solution to erosion, flooding, and water quality problems that stormwater ponds partially address. LID analysis takes a spatially lumped approach, based on maintaining the predevelopment Curve Number and time of concentration, precluding consideration of the spatial distribution of impervious areas and Integrated Management Practices (IMP's), runoff-runon processes, and the effects of land grading. Success is thus dependent on the accuracy of the assumption of watershed uniformity, applied to both land cover distribution and flow path length. Considering the cost of long-term paired watershed monitoring, continuous, spatially-distributed hydrologic modeling was judged a better method to compare the response of LID, forest, and conventional development. Review of available models revealed EPA-SWMM 4.4H as the most applicable to the task. A 4.3-acre subwatershed of a local subdivision was adapted to LID using impervious surface disconnection, forest retention, and IMPs. SWMM was applied to the LID development at a fine spatial scale, yielding an 80-element SWMM model. The LID model was modified to reflect conventional development, with gutters, storm sewer, and detention. A predevelopment forest model was also developed. Two parameter sets were used, representing a range of assumptions characterized as favorable or unfavorable toward a particular development form. Modeled scenarios included favorable and unfavorable versions of Forest, LID, uncontrolled Conventional Development, and Conventional Development with Stormwater Management. SWMM was run in continuous mode using local rainfall data, and event mode using NRCS design storms. Runoff volumes, peak flows, and flow duration curves were compared. / Master of Science

It is well documented that urbanization changes the hydrology of watersheds (Hammer 1972; Booth 1991; Rose and Peters 2001). Increases in runoff volume and velocity from urbanization result in stream channel degradation (Hammer 1972; Henshaw and Booth 2000; Walsh et al. 2005; Leopold et al. 2005a; Poff et al. 2006). While stormwater management measures may be implemented to reduce the impact of stormwater runoff on streams, these practices do not reverse stream channel degradation that has already occurred. Stream restoration utilizing Natural Channel Stream Design (NCD) techniques is an effective way to reverse the effects of urbanization and return natural function to a stream. The design (bankfull) discharge for an NCD stream restoration project is the cornerstone of a restoration design. Existing methodologies for determining design discharges, such as hydrologic modeling and bankfull identification, have not worked well for NCD stream restoration projects in urban watersheds. The use of hydraulic geometry relationships serves as an alternative method for determining design discharge, but the required information is not generally available for urban Northern Virginia streams. However, rural regional curves developed for the Maryland piedmont, adjusted for watershed impervious area, provide a means to determine design discharges for urban stream restoration projects in Northern Virginia. / Master of Science

Urban tree canopy cover is important because it mitigates negative impacts of urbanization such as urban heat and stormwater. Land development leads to canopy loss through tree removal, but some localities have regulations in place that require trees to be retained or replanted during development. The goal of these regulations is to preserve tree cover. Since 2009, Fairfax County, Virginia has had an ordinance that requires parcels to reach a certain amount of canopy 10 years post-development. However, it was unknown if the requirements of this ordinance were being met. To investigate this issue, we determined which developed parcels met their required canopy using remotely-sensed tree canopy cover data from 2021. We then conducted an additional analysis on a sample of developed parcels using their site plans to compare the canopy proposed by developers to the measured canopy from the geospatial data. These results were then compared to potential predictors of ordinance compliance to determine if there were certain attributes of a parcel that may drive ordinance compliance. Of all 482 parcels in Fairfax County that were developed from 2009 to 2011, 79.46% met their canopy requirements by 2021. For the sample of 151 developed parcels, 70% reached the proposed amount of canopy by 2021. The results suggest that Fairfax County's ordinance is promoting preservation of tree canopy cover in developed areas as intended. Zoning type, amount of canopy required, parcel size, impervious cover, and pre-existing canopy were all found to have a significant relationship with ordinance compliance. These findings could improve the understanding of the efficacy of tree ordinances in other localities. / Master of Science / Trees in cities provide residents with many benefits including absorbing stormwater, reducing pollutants entering waterways from runoff, filtering air pollutants, and lessening soil erosion. However, the removal of trees during construction reduces the number of trees, which reduces the benefits trees provide. One way municipalities are combating this issue is through creating policies that protect canopy in areas undergoing development. Fairfax County, Virginia has a policy that requires developers to ensure the land they develop has a certain amount of tree canopy 10 years after construction. This policy has been in effect in Fairfax County since 2009, but until now the county did not know if developed areas were meeting the required amount of tree canopy 10 years after construction. We used measurements of tree canopy cover as well as information from the construction plans of developed areas to determine where tree canopy requirements were being met and where they were not. Of all 482 parcels in Fairfax County that were developed from 2009 to 2011, 79.46% met their canopy requirements by 2021. We also investigated if certain attributes of a developed area may impact if that area will reach its required canopy in 10 years. Zoning type, amount of canopy required, parcel size, impervious cover, and pre-existing canopy were all identified as factors that may impact policy compliance. These findings could help other localities protect tree canopy cover using land development policies.

Sweden’s landscapes are all marked by human activities, even in the landscapes today perceived as an untouched wilderness, remains of previous human resource extraction can be found. Historical imprints left in our surroundings speak of past memories and life; this allows us to evoke feelings and connect to a site. These sites are often celebrated as places of value since they store knowledge of our past – landscapes that can speak about us. Today these landscapes are reshaped by industrial machinery and our impact has reached a new global scale. Vast areas are laid to waste, extracted, transformed and finally forgotten. This thesis derives from the study of these types of important territories called landscapes of extraction. The thesis introduces Slite, a small mining town located on Gotland, where the impacts of these industrial Badlands have split both the town and its community in half. It is an investigation of possible scenarios and opportunities for the post-treatment after the industry has left. Furthermore, it is a continuation of my previous research, where concepts and instruments such as Mythology, Planetary urbanization and Reclamation are adapted to post-industrial landscapes (Högberg 2023, 3, 6-7). As a result, this thesis aims to support a reclamation process where these damaged territories can be rediscovered, revalued and reintegrated with the local ecosystem and community. A process that promotes a more productive, sustainable and responsible future for these sensitive but important landscapes. I consider these landscapes key territories, since they allow us to experience the true impact of our own consumption, thus they are essential spaces to fully grasp the consequences of our own usage of resources.