In 1994, Rwanda erupted into one of the most appalling cases of mass murder, leading to the death of about 800,000 Tutsi and moderate Hutus. On 8 November 1994, the United Nations Security Council (SC) established the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) ‘to prosecute persons responsible for genocide and other serious violations of the international humanitarian law committed in the territory of Rwanda and Rwandan citizens responsible for genocide and other such violations committed in the territory of neighbouring states between 1 January 1994 and 31 December 1994’. / Thesis (LLM (Human Rights and Democratisation in Africa)) -- University of Pretoria, 2010. / A dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Law University of Pretoria, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree Masters of Law (LLM in Human Rights and Democratisation in Africa). Prepared under the supervision of Mr. Pramod Bissessur of the Faculty of Law, University of Mautitius. 2010. / http://www.chr.up.ac.za/ / Centre for Human Rights / LLM

Role Conflict and Nonsexual Boundary Violations Among Correctional Officers by Ronald Ruggiero Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Human Service--Criminal Justice Walden University May 2014 Abstract Despite the growing presence of prisons in American society, little is known about challenges experienced in the job performed by correctional officers (COs); specifically, no research has investigated how their intermediary status between inmates and prison management can result in role conflict. This descriptive case study explored role conflict among 10 retired CO's and the presence of inmates who enter prison with a high public profile. It also examined and if nonsexual boundary violations are prompted by COs' role conflict. Role conflict theory provided the framework for the study. Open-ended interview questions were generated to address the study's research questions, which concerned the effects of role conflict on COs' perceptions of prison operations, safety, and employee morale. Interviews were audio recorded and transcribed, then analyzed for recurring themes using open and axial coding. Three themes emerged from the analysis: high-profile inmates were described as more popular, more intelligent, and more manipulative than regular prisoners. These differences heightened the possibility for affinity between inmates and CO's, which contributed to perceptions of role conflict among the COs assigned to guard high-profile inmates. This study contributes to social change by providing insight into the challenges of COs' job roles that may influence the training and development for prison staff and management of high profile inmates.

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The main aim of this thesis is to investigate the processes of the psychological contract during organisational socialisation. Research on psychological contract tends to focus more on the content and breach of the contract. Very little is known about the formative stages of the contract. Very little attention has also been given to investigating the psychological contract together with organisational socialisation. Linking the two research areas would further our understanding of both the dynamic nature of the psychological contract. This is achieved by investigating the temporal changes of the psychological contract of new employees, pre-entry up to six months post entry into employment. The research also investigates the psychological contract from the employer`s perspective. It utilises Weick`s (1995) sensemaking properties as a methodological framework to better understand these processes. Consistent with the research aim and objectives and social constructionism, a qualitative methodology was adopted. The research used in-depth semi structured interviews to collect data supplemented with sitting in during recruitment interviews in one of the organisations, and data were analysed using template analysis. Periodic interviews were carried out every four to six months post entry. The research consists of two organisations, where each provided two groups for analysis. The findings show that after entry into the organisation, the psychological contract changes in a variety of ways influenced by socialisation into the organisation. A model based on the findings is presented and discussed in the discussion chapter. The research also makes a contribution (methodology) by adopting the sensemaking framework.

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This thesis has evaluated the effectiveness of GDL programs both in New Jersey and across the United States using several metrics. The New Jersey GDL program was analyzed because it is considered one of the most stringent programs in the country. It was found that GDL indeed reduces the per capita rate of crashes for teen drivers in New Jersey. However, no statistical difference was seen in the rate of fatalities in teen driver crashes. The per capita rate of violations for 16 and 17 year old drivers was lower after GDL, but the rate of point-carrying violations increased for 19 and 20 year old drivers who were licensed under GDL. The September, 2008 directive by the New Jersey Attorney General banning plea-agreements for teens significantly reduced the rate of violations further for 16 and 17 year old GDL drivers. The factors that led to teen crashes did not change in the United States after GDL. Teen drivers are still prone to distractions and inappropriate behavior while driving. Teen drivers also have higher rates of control loss and road departure crashes when compared to adults. Finally, it was found changes in the number teen driver crashes and fatalities are associated with similar changes in travel exposure. Teen crashes and fatalities have dropped with the implementation of GDL but teen VMT has also dropped. Graduated driver's licensing did not change the reasons for teen driver crashes. Also, it is likely that any reductions in the number of teen crashes or fatalities are associated with reductions in exposure and not changes in teen driver behavior. / Ph. D.

Les violations graves des droits de l’Homme des civiles commises par leur état n’est plus considérée comme une affaire interne des pays. En effet, s’il y a un comportement illicite, la Communauté internationale peut intervenir, c’est ce que l’on dénomme souvent « droit d’ingérence ». Ce dernier a évolué récemment vers un nouveau concept introduit dans le rapport de la CIISE (2001) : « responsabilité de protéger ». Si nous regardons l’intervention militaire du côté purement humanitaire, loin de la théorie de complot et des intérêts coloniaux, nous confirmons sa nécessité comme moyen efficace pour la protection des civils contre les violations graves des droits de l’Homme. En revanche, nous affirmons que les interventions militaires visant à protéger les civils par l’ONU ne sont pas toutes légales ou légitimes. En conséquence, pour que l’intervention soit légale et légitime il faut respecter des fondements et des normes contraignantes. / Serious violations of the Human Rights of the civilians are not consistent as internal affairs of countries. Yet, regarding any unlawful policy behavior, the international community can intervene. This is often called “ the right interference “. The latter has recently been developed into the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (ICISS) concept (2001) as“responsibility to protect”. Considering military interventions as a humanitarian action without any conspiracy and colonial interests theory, we may confirm the needs for an effective means for protecting the civilians against serious violations of human rights. On the other hand, we can confirm that not all military interventions aimed at protecting civilians by the United Nations are legal or legitimate. Consequently, for legal and legitimate intervention, it respects binding foundations and norms. / لم تعد مسألة الانتهاكات الجسيمة لحقوق الإنسان للمدنيين، التي ترتكبها دولهم من المسائل الداخلية للدول. إذ أنه يمكن للمجتمع الدولي التدخل عسكرياً إذا كانت هناك انتهاكات جسيمة لحقوق الإنسان، وهذا ما يسمى "حق التدخل". وقد تطور هذا الأخير إلى مفهوم جديد تم تقديمه في تقرير اللجنة الدولية المعنية بالتدخل وسيادة الدول، تحت مسمى "مسؤولية الحماية. (2001) والواقع أنه إذا نظرنا إلى التدخل العسكري من الجانب الإنساني البحت ، بعيداً عن نظرية المؤامرة والمصالح الاستعمارية، فإننا نؤكد ضرورة القيام به كوسيلة فعالة لحماية المدنيين من الانتهاكات الجسيمة لحقوق الإنسان. ومن ناحية أخرى، نؤكد أن جميع التدخلات العسكرية التي تهدف إلى حماية المدنيين من قبل الأمم المتحدة ليست شرعية ومشروعة. من أجل ذلك، ولكي يكون التدخل شرعياً ومشروعاً، يجب أن يحترم القائمون به الأسس والمعايير اللازمة للقيام بالتدخل.

"Whereas victims of ordinary crimes such as theft, robbery, assault or murder find it easier to obtain redress, victims of the most serious violatons such as war crimes, genocide and crimes against humanity receive less attention insofar as their redress is concerned. Apart from some exceptional cases where victims of serious human rights abuses had their right to redress vindicated, there has not been an effective and comprehensive way of redressing victims of gross human rights violations. In Africa for instance, victims' redress in post-Apartheid South Africa and post-genocide Rwanda have been problematic. Thus, it is meaningful investigating how effectively the victims' right to reparation can be implemented in case of gross and systematic human rights violations. Preliminary to the above interrogation are questions such as: what are gross and systematic human rights violations? What are international standards regarding redress for the victims of such abuses? The case studies of Sierra Leone and the DRC will be closely analysed as an empirical foundation for these questions. ... This study consists of five chapters. Chapter one draws the context in which the study emerges. It provides the foundation and the structure of the dissertation. Chapter two outlines the legal framework that is relevant for answering the questions raised by this study. It explores international human rights standards regarding reparation of vicitms of gross and systematic violations. Chapter three analyses the implementation of victims' reparation in the context of Sierra Leone. It confronts Sierra Leonean responses to war victims with international standards on victims' reparation. Chapter four analyses victims' situation in the post-conflict Democratic Republic of Congo and draws lessons from the Sierra Leonean experience. Chapter five sums up findings of the study." -- Introduction. / Prepared under the supervision of Professor Alejandro Lorite Escorihuela at the Department of Law, American University in Cairo, Egypt / Thesis (LLM (Human Rights and Democratisation in Africa)) -- University of Pretoria, 2006. / http://www.chr.up.ac.za/academic_pro/llm1/dissertations.html / Centre for Human Rights / LLM

Après une introduction historique sur l'évolution du système de la CEDH, cette thèse s'intéresse au thème des «violations structurelles» dans la jurisprudence de la Cour européenne des droits de l'homme en raison d'un contexte de crise de la CEDH, essentiellement dûe à une charge de travail excessive. Les violations structurelles ne sont certes pas un phénomène nouveau dans l'histoire de la Convention et dans la jurisprudence internationale des droits de l’homme, en particulier celle de la Cour interaméricaine des droits de l'homme. C'est pourquoi ce thème permet d'aborder plusieurs questions de taille : l'exécution des arrêts de la Cour européenne dans les ordres juridiques internes, l'avenir du système de la CEDH et encore la nature «constitutionnelle» de la Cour européenne des droits de l'homme. L'ensemble de cette recherche met en évidence la tension récente entre «justice individuelle» et «justice collective» à la lumière du débat sur la «constitutionnalisation» du droit européen des droits de l'homme, dont le thème représente ici le fil conducteur. / After an historical introduction on the evolution of the ECHR system, this thesis deals with the theme of "structural violations" in the case law of the European Court of Human Rights in the context of the crisis of the ECHR, principally due to an excessive workload. Structural violations are not a new phenomenon in the history of the Convention and in the jurisprudence of international human rights, especially that of the Inter-American Court. The theme is therefore an opportunity to tackle key issues: the European Court's execution of judgements in internal legal orders, the future of the ECHR system, but also the "constitutional" nature of the European Court of Human Rights. All of this highlights the recent tension between "individual justice" and "collective justice" in the debate on the "constitutionalization" of European Human Rights Law, which is here the common thread. / Dopo un’introduzione storica sull’evoluzione del sistema CEDU, il lavoro affronta il tema delle « violazioni strutturali » nella giurisprudenza della Corte europea dei diritti dell’uomo, nel quadro della crisi del modello CEDU, dovuta principalmente all’eccessivo carico di lavoro. Si tratta di un fenomeno non nuovo nella storia della Convenzione e nella giurisprudenza internazionale dei diritti umani, specie in quella della Corte interamericana. Il tema rappresenta inoltre lo spunto per affrontare questioni problematiche: il profilo dell’esecuzione delle sentenze della Corte europea negli ordinamenti interni, il futuro dello stesso sistema CEDU e la natura “costituzionale” della Corte EDU. Tutto questo evidenzia anche la recente tensione tra “giustizia individuale” e “giustizia collettiva”, nell’ambito del dibattito sulla “costituzionalizzazione” del diritto europeo dei diritti dell’uomo, fil rouge dell’intera trattazione.