The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between burnout and work engagement among employees in the pharmaceutical distribution industry. The research conducted on these concepts was geared towards adding to the knowledge base in the field of industrial and organisational psychology, to enable the current organisation from which the sample was chosen and other organisations in South Africa to focus on the effect that burnout has on employees, which directly affects the company. A quantitative survey using primary data was conducted on a convenience sample (N = 204) of full-time employees in a South African pharmaceutical distribution company. The Maslach Burnout Inventory – General Survey model (MBI-GS) and the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES) model were used to gather data. The work engagement-burnout continuum has received a great deal of research attention (Maslach, Schaufeli, & Leiter, 2001; Schaufeli & Bakker, 2003; Schutte, Toppinen, Kalimo, & Schaufeli, 2000) that has produced contradicting results. One viewpoint regards the core constructs of work engagement and burnout as opposite poles of two continua (vigour-exhaustion and dedication-cynicism), labelled energy and identification, respectively (González-Romá, Schaufeli, Bakker, & Lloret, 2006). Work engagement is ”characterized by a high level of energy and strong identification with one’s work”, while burnout is ”characterized by the opposite: A low level of energy combined with poor identification with one’s work” (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2003, p. 5; Bakker, Schaufeli, Leiter, & Taris, 2008). Hence work engagement and burnout can be recognised as inseparable and co-dependent constructs that share more or less 10 to 25% of their variance and are moderately negatively related (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004; Schaufeli, Salanova, González-Romá, & Bakker, 2002). The second viewpoint regards work engagement and burnout as being strongly related, but fundamentally different in their separation in the work experience. They are therefore not opposite poles of a continuum (Denton, Newton, & Bower, 2008; Huhtala & Parzefall, 2007; Rothmann & Joubert, 2007; Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004; Schaufeli et al., 2002). Work engagement is defined as a ”positive, fulfilling, work-related state of mind that is characterised by vigour, dedication, and absorption” (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004, p. 295). Burnout, however, is defined by Maslach and Jackson (1981, p. 99) as a ”syndrome of emotional exhaustion and cynicism that occurs frequently amongst individuals who do ‘people-work’ of some kind”. The statistical results of this study confirmed the hypothesis. It was found that there is a significant relationship between burnout and work engagement. Burnout is indeed negatively related to work engagement in the contact centre. However, a definitive relationship between burnout and work engagement in the distribution centre was not established. / Industrial and Organisational Psychology / M. Comm. (Industrial Psychology)

Studiens syfte var att undersöka om graden av work engagement kan prediceras utifrån aspekter av job crafting bland människor som arbetar i projektform. Det har gjorts genom en kvantitativ undersökning där en tvärsnittsstudie genomförts för att besvara studiens frågeställning och att uppfylla dess syfte. Data har samlats in som enkätsvar och analyserats. Enkäten har utformats med hjälp av befintliga instrument som översatts till svenska. Totalt har 74 svar inkommit. Resultatet visar på ett signifikant samband mellan job crafting och work engagement. Inga koefficienter för de enskilda aspekterna av job crafting visade sig signifikanta i regressionsanalysen. Använda begrepp definieras och problematiseras och tänkbara anledningra till erhållet resultat diskuteras. / The aim of the study was to investigate whether the degree of work engagement can be predicted from aspects of job crafting among people working in project form. This has been through quantitative research where a cross-sectional study has been conducted inb order to answer the research question and fulfill the purpose of the study. Data has been collected through a questionnaire and analyzed. The questionnaire has been designed based on existing instruments that has been translated into Swedish. A total of 74 answers were received. The results indicate a statistically significant relationship between job crafting and work engagement. No coefficients for the for the individual aspects of job crafting proved significant in the regression analysis. The concepts and terms used are defined and problematized and possible reasons for the obtained results are discussed.

The emergence of the positive psychology movement has brought the attention to individuals’ strengths and their deficits. Specifically of interest within an organisational context is the extent to which employees’ strengths are used and their deficits are improved. Specifically, organisations may provide their support for employees’ strengths use and deficit improvement, and individuals themselves can also proactively seek opportunities to use their strengths and improve their deficits. However, little attention has been paid to strengths use and deficit improvement in empirical research. One reason for this may be a lack of a clear conceptualisation of organisational support for strengths use and deficit improvement and individuals’ proactive strengths use and deficit improvement. Furthermore, this lacking conceptualisation hinders research to empirically measure these constructs, since no measuring instrument exists to measure strengths use and deficit improvement by the organisation and the individual. In addition, no empirical research has been conducted to determine whether strengths use or deficit improvement, or possibly a combined approach focusing on both, may be more beneficial for the organisation in terms of work-related outcomes such as work engagement, learning, job satisfaction and turnover intention. Moreover, the relationship between work engagement (a well-established positive psychology construct) with organisational support for strengths use and deficit improvement and specifically individuals’ proactive strengths use and deficit improvement is unexplored. In light of the above gaps in the literature, the primary objectives of this study were: (a) To conceptualise a taxonomy of strengths use and deficit improvement and to develop and validate the Strengths Use and Deficit Improvement Questionnaire (SUDIQ) that measures four constructs, namely perceived organisational support for strengths use (POSSU), perceived organisational support for deficit improvement (POSDI), proactive behaviour towards strengths use (PBSU) and proactive behaviour towards deficit improvement (PBDI); (b) to examine the item bias, structural equivalence, measurement unit equivalence and scalar equivalence of the SUDIQ among South African ethnic groups; (c) to examine whether POSSU, POSDI or a combination of these two will lead to the best organisational outcomes (i.e. work engagement, learning, job satisfaction and turnover intention); and (d) to determine whether (1) work engagement mediates the relationship between POSSU and PBSU and between POSDI and PBDI, or (2) whether proactive behaviour (PBSU and PBDI) mediates the relationship between POSSU and POSDI with work engagement. The above research objectives were addressed in four empirical, quantitative research articles. For the purpose of research article 1, the Strengths Use and Deficit Improvement Scale (SUDIQ) was developed by following the guidelines of DeVellis (2003). A pilot study was conducted among a heterogeneous sample (N = 241). The validation study was conducted among a heterogeneous sample (N = 699) in various industries in South Africa. For research article 2, the item bias, construct equivalence, measurement unit equivalence and scalar equivalence of the SUDIQ were assessed among a heterogeneous sample (N = 858) in various South African industries. For the purpose of article 3, the relationships between POSSU, POSDI and a combined approach with the outcomes, work engagement, learning, job satisfaction and turnover intention were examined among a sample of 266 public school teachers in the Western Cape. Finally, to determine the relationships between work engagement and PBSU and PBDI and also the mediation effect in a structural model, a sample of 378 employees in the financial industry was investigated. For the pilot study in article 1, an initial item pool of 33 items was generated. In the exploratory factor analysis of this pilot study, four distinct factors were extracted and were labelled perceived organisational support for strengths use (POSSU; eight items), perceived organisational support for deficit improvement (POSDI; eight items), proactive behaviour towards strengths use (PBSU; nine items) and proactive behaviour towards deficit improvement (PBDI; eight items). The factorial validity was confirmed with a confirmatory factor analysis that confirmed the hypothesised four-factor structure of the SUDIQ. The POSSU and POSDI dimensions were positively related to autonomy and participation in decision-making, two job resources, and confirming the convergent validity of these two scales. The PBSU and PBDI scales were found to be positively related to self-efficacy, establishing the convergent validity of these two scales. The criterion-related validity was established through the positive correlation of the four SUDIQ dimensions with work engagement and the negative correlation with burnout. According to the results of the bias and equivalence analysis in article 2, the uniformly biased items included one POSSU item, two POSDI items, two PBSU items and three PBDI items. Three POSSU items were found to be non-uniformly biased. These items that were identified as having either uniform or non-uniform bias for black, white or coloured participants were discarded from further analyses. The results confirmed the SUDIQ to be equivalent across the three ethnic groups in terms of construct equivalence, measurement unit equivalence and scalar equivalence. The results of research article 3 indicate that both strengths use and deficit improvement are important predictors of work engagement, learning, job satisfaction and turnover intention. Learning was higher and turnover intention lower for individuals experiencing a combined approach compared to those believing that their school does not support them to either use their strengths or improve their deficits. Furthermore, a combined approach was associated with higher job satisfaction than a strengths-based approach, and a deficit-based approach was shown to be associated with higher levels of work engagement and turnover intentions compared to an environment where neither employees’ strengths nor deficits are addressed. Finally, in article 4, two competing models were tested where in model 1 work engagement was specified as a mediator in the relationship between POSSU and PBSU and between POSDI and PBDI. In model 2, proactive behaviour (PBSU and PBDI) was specified as a mediator in the relationship between POSSU and POSDI with work engagement. The results indicated that model 1 fitted the data better compared to model 2. Therefore, it was found that work engagement mediates the relationship between POSSU and PBSU and also between POSDI and PBDI. Recommendations were made for organisations and for future research. / PhD (Industrial Psychology), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

The roles of females have changed significantly over the past years as females increasingly are entering the labour market in South Africa. This resulted in females having to fulfil multiple roles simultaneously, for example being mother, wife and employee. Therefore the statement can be made that females have a work life and a family life to contend with. This can be enriching, seeing that these domains can generate experiences and resources, which females can use in other domains to enhance the quality. The general objective of this study was to explore various relationships that females experience between work resources, home resources, work engagement, family engagement and work-family enrichment. A cross-sectional survey design was used in this study. A combined purposive and convenience non-probability sample of female workers (N = 420) was taken across the spectrum of several industries in South Africa. Measuring instruments were used for biographical characteristics, work resources (self-developed), home resources (self-developed), work-family enrichment (MACE Work-Family Enrichment Instrument), work engagement (Utrecht Engagement Scale) and family engagement (adapted Utrecht Work Engagement Scale). Omegas and Cronbach’s alpha coefficients were used to determine the reliability of the findings, while correlations were employed to identify significant relationships between the constructs. The dual work-family enrichment models and the mediating effect of the various dimensions of work-to-family enrichment, as well as family-to-work enrichment, were also tested by the Mplus statistical programme. Two models in which work-family enrichment and family-work enrichment act as mediators were also tested. The results indicated a positive statistical significant relationship between work resources, and work-family enrichment; also between home resources, and family-work enrichment; and between work-family enrichment and work engagement. However, a very small, but statistical significant, relationship was shown to exist between family-work enrichment and family engagement. Work-family enrichment also mediated the relationship, with a large effect, between work resources, with work engagement as outcome and family-work enrichment mediated the relationship, with a small effect, between home resources, with family engagement as outcome. Recommendations were made for organisations to follow up and for future research on the topic. / MCom (Industrial Psychology), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

Traditionally, organisations have focused efforts in developing their people towards improving so-called areas of deficiency, identifying the flaws of employees and putting intervention structures in place to rectify and redress these areas. Limited efforts have seen the accentuation of employees‟ strengths as a means of developing those employees‟ full potential, as prescribed in the Positive Psychology. In a balanced organisational development approach, both areas of strength and deficit should be developed in order to harness optimum human potential and growth. This balanced approach is critical, as it provides for full spectrum development of the individual and creates opportunity for the attainment of positive work-related outcomes, such as work engagement. The objective of this research study was to test a structural model of job resources in the form of organisational strengths use and organisational deficit improvement; personal resources in the form of individual strengths use and individual deficit improvement; and work engagement; to relate the conceptualised job- and personal resources to established job- and personal resources in the nomological net and to investigate possible structural paths between job- and personal resources and work engagement. This study was conducted in order to gain more knowledge and a better understanding of the outcomes of following a balanced strengths use and deficit improvement approach (SDBA), both from an organisational (job resource) and individual (personal resource) perspective. Participants in the research were sport coaches from primary and secondary schools. The Mplus and SPSS programmes were utilised for purposes of statistical analysis. A cross-sectional research approach was used. An availability sample (N = 364) of teachers who act as sport coaches in Gauteng, North-West and Free State based schools was used. Competing measurement models were used to confirm factor structures for adapted versions of the Strengths use and Deficit Improvement Questionnaire (SUDIQ), as well as the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES). These measurement models confirmed a four-factor and one-factor model structure for the adapted versions of the SUDIQ and UWES respectively. After factor structures had been confirmed, reliability of the adapted measures was assessed by means of Cronbach alpha coefficient values. The relation of the conceptualised job resources of organisational strengths use and organisational deficit improvement to established job resources was assessed by incorporating the job resources of opportunities for learning and independence at work into the study. In the case of the conceptualised personal resources, individual strengths use and individual deficit improvement were related to self-efficacy and self-esteem. This was done in order to theoretically relate these variables in the nomological net of other job resources and personal resources. Subsequently, structural equation modelling was used to investigate the relationship between the job resources of organisational strengths use and organisational deficit improvement, personal resources individual strengths use and individual deficit improvement; and work engagement. Through categorical estimation the research found individual strengths use to be the strongest predictor of work engagement, followed by individual deficit improvement and organisational strengths use. Organisational deficit improvement was proven as a statistically insignificant predictor of work engagement. After conclusions for the study were drawn, recommendations for the organisation, individual as well as for future research were made. / MCom (Industrial Psychology), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2013

The emergence of the positive psychology movement has brought the attention to individuals’ strengths and their deficits. Specifically of interest within an organisational context is the extent to which employees’ strengths are used and their deficits are improved. Specifically, organisations may provide their support for employees’ strengths use and deficit improvement, and individuals themselves can also proactively seek opportunities to use their strengths and improve their deficits. However, little attention has been paid to strengths use and deficit improvement in empirical research. One reason for this may be a lack of a clear conceptualisation of organisational support for strengths use and deficit improvement and individuals’ proactive strengths use and deficit improvement. Furthermore, this lacking conceptualisation hinders research to empirically measure these constructs, since no measuring instrument exists to measure strengths use and deficit improvement by the organisation and the individual. In addition, no empirical research has been conducted to determine whether strengths use or deficit improvement, or possibly a combined approach focusing on both, may be more beneficial for the organisation in terms of work-related outcomes such as work engagement, learning, job satisfaction and turnover intention. Moreover, the relationship between work engagement (a well-established positive psychology construct) with organisational support for strengths use and deficit improvement and specifically individuals’ proactive strengths use and deficit improvement is unexplored. In light of the above gaps in the literature, the primary objectives of this study were: (a) To conceptualise a taxonomy of strengths use and deficit improvement and to develop and validate the Strengths Use and Deficit Improvement Questionnaire (SUDIQ) that measures four constructs, namely perceived organisational support for strengths use (POSSU), perceived organisational support for deficit improvement (POSDI), proactive behaviour towards strengths use (PBSU) and proactive behaviour towards deficit improvement (PBDI); (b) to examine the item bias, structural equivalence, measurement unit equivalence and scalar equivalence of the SUDIQ among South African ethnic groups; (c) to examine whether POSSU, POSDI or a combination of these two will lead to the best organisational outcomes (i.e. work engagement, learning, job satisfaction and turnover intention); and (d) to determine whether (1) work engagement mediates the relationship between POSSU and PBSU and between POSDI and PBDI, or (2) whether proactive behaviour (PBSU and PBDI) mediates the relationship between POSSU and POSDI with work engagement. The above research objectives were addressed in four empirical, quantitative research articles. For the purpose of research article 1, the Strengths Use and Deficit Improvement Scale (SUDIQ) was developed by following the guidelines of DeVellis (2003). A pilot study was conducted among a heterogeneous sample (N = 241). The validation study was conducted among a heterogeneous sample (N = 699) in various industries in South Africa. For research article 2, the item bias, construct equivalence, measurement unit equivalence and scalar equivalence of the SUDIQ were assessed among a heterogeneous sample (N = 858) in various South African industries. For the purpose of article 3, the relationships between POSSU, POSDI and a combined approach with the outcomes, work engagement, learning, job satisfaction and turnover intention were examined among a sample of 266 public school teachers in the Western Cape. Finally, to determine the relationships between work engagement and PBSU and PBDI and also the mediation effect in a structural model, a sample of 378 employees in the financial industry was investigated. For the pilot study in article 1, an initial item pool of 33 items was generated. In the exploratory factor analysis of this pilot study, four distinct factors were extracted and were labelled perceived organisational support for strengths use (POSSU; eight items), perceived organisational support for deficit improvement (POSDI; eight items), proactive behaviour towards strengths use (PBSU; nine items) and proactive behaviour towards deficit improvement (PBDI; eight items). The factorial validity was confirmed with a confirmatory factor analysis that confirmed the hypothesised four-factor structure of the SUDIQ. The POSSU and POSDI dimensions were positively related to autonomy and participation in decision-making, two job resources, and confirming the convergent validity of these two scales. The PBSU and PBDI scales were found to be positively related to self-efficacy, establishing the convergent validity of these two scales. The criterion-related validity was established through the positive correlation of the four SUDIQ dimensions with work engagement and the negative correlation with burnout. According to the results of the bias and equivalence analysis in article 2, the uniformly biased items included one POSSU item, two POSDI items, two PBSU items and three PBDI items. Three POSSU items were found to be non-uniformly biased. These items that were identified as having either uniform or non-uniform bias for black, white or coloured participants were discarded from further analyses. The results confirmed the SUDIQ to be equivalent across the three ethnic groups in terms of construct equivalence, measurement unit equivalence and scalar equivalence. The results of research article 3 indicate that both strengths use and deficit improvement are important predictors of work engagement, learning, job satisfaction and turnover intention. Learning was higher and turnover intention lower for individuals experiencing a combined approach compared to those believing that their school does not support them to either use their strengths or improve their deficits. Furthermore, a combined approach was associated with higher job satisfaction than a strengths-based approach, and a deficit-based approach was shown to be associated with higher levels of work engagement and turnover intentions compared to an environment where neither employees’ strengths nor deficits are addressed. Finally, in article 4, two competing models were tested where in model 1 work engagement was specified as a mediator in the relationship between POSSU and PBSU and between POSDI and PBDI. In model 2, proactive behaviour (PBSU and PBDI) was specified as a mediator in the relationship between POSSU and POSDI with work engagement. The results indicated that model 1 fitted the data better compared to model 2. Therefore, it was found that work engagement mediates the relationship between POSSU and PBSU and also between POSDI and PBDI. Recommendations were made for organisations and for future research. / PhD (Industrial Psychology), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

The roles of females have changed significantly over the past years as females increasingly are entering the labour market in South Africa. This resulted in females having to fulfil multiple roles simultaneously, for example being mother, wife and employee. Therefore the statement can be made that females have a work life and a family life to contend with. This can be enriching, seeing that these domains can generate experiences and resources, which females can use in other domains to enhance the quality. The general objective of this study was to explore various relationships that females experience between work resources, home resources, work engagement, family engagement and work-family enrichment. A cross-sectional survey design was used in this study. A combined purposive and convenience non-probability sample of female workers (N = 420) was taken across the spectrum of several industries in South Africa. Measuring instruments were used for biographical characteristics, work resources (self-developed), home resources (self-developed), work-family enrichment (MACE Work-Family Enrichment Instrument), work engagement (Utrecht Engagement Scale) and family engagement (adapted Utrecht Work Engagement Scale). Omegas and Cronbach’s alpha coefficients were used to determine the reliability of the findings, while correlations were employed to identify significant relationships between the constructs. The dual work-family enrichment models and the mediating effect of the various dimensions of work-to-family enrichment, as well as family-to-work enrichment, were also tested by the Mplus statistical programme. Two models in which work-family enrichment and family-work enrichment act as mediators were also tested. The results indicated a positive statistical significant relationship between work resources, and work-family enrichment; also between home resources, and family-work enrichment; and between work-family enrichment and work engagement. However, a very small, but statistical significant, relationship was shown to exist between family-work enrichment and family engagement. Work-family enrichment also mediated the relationship, with a large effect, between work resources, with work engagement as outcome and family-work enrichment mediated the relationship, with a small effect, between home resources, with family engagement as outcome. Recommendations were made for organisations to follow up and for future research on the topic. / MCom (Industrial Psychology), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

Traditionally, organisations have focused efforts in developing their people towards improving so-called areas of deficiency, identifying the flaws of employees and putting intervention structures in place to rectify and redress these areas. Limited efforts have seen the accentuation of employees‟ strengths as a means of developing those employees‟ full potential, as prescribed in the Positive Psychology. In a balanced organisational development approach, both areas of strength and deficit should be developed in order to harness optimum human potential and growth. This balanced approach is critical, as it provides for full spectrum development of the individual and creates opportunity for the attainment of positive work-related outcomes, such as work engagement. The objective of this research study was to test a structural model of job resources in the form of organisational strengths use and organisational deficit improvement; personal resources in the form of individual strengths use and individual deficit improvement; and work engagement; to relate the conceptualised job- and personal resources to established job- and personal resources in the nomological net and to investigate possible structural paths between job- and personal resources and work engagement. This study was conducted in order to gain more knowledge and a better understanding of the outcomes of following a balanced strengths use and deficit improvement approach (SDBA), both from an organisational (job resource) and individual (personal resource) perspective. Participants in the research were sport coaches from primary and secondary schools. The Mplus and SPSS programmes were utilised for purposes of statistical analysis. A cross-sectional research approach was used. An availability sample (N = 364) of teachers who act as sport coaches in Gauteng, North-West and Free State based schools was used. Competing measurement models were used to confirm factor structures for adapted versions of the Strengths use and Deficit Improvement Questionnaire (SUDIQ), as well as the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES). These measurement models confirmed a four-factor and one-factor model structure for the adapted versions of the SUDIQ and UWES respectively. After factor structures had been confirmed, reliability of the adapted measures was assessed by means of Cronbach alpha coefficient values. The relation of the conceptualised job resources of organisational strengths use and organisational deficit improvement to established job resources was assessed by incorporating the job resources of opportunities for learning and independence at work into the study. In the case of the conceptualised personal resources, individual strengths use and individual deficit improvement were related to self-efficacy and self-esteem. This was done in order to theoretically relate these variables in the nomological net of other job resources and personal resources. Subsequently, structural equation modelling was used to investigate the relationship between the job resources of organisational strengths use and organisational deficit improvement, personal resources individual strengths use and individual deficit improvement; and work engagement. Through categorical estimation the research found individual strengths use to be the strongest predictor of work engagement, followed by individual deficit improvement and organisational strengths use. Organisational deficit improvement was proven as a statistically insignificant predictor of work engagement. After conclusions for the study were drawn, recommendations for the organisation, individual as well as for future research were made. / MCom (Industrial Psychology), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2013

Dissertation / The main purpose of the study was to determine whether there is a significant relationship between the transformational leadership styles of officers and their followers’ levels of work engagement. The instruments used in the study were the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) (Form 5X) and the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES). Followers (n=311) were identified in various units of the South African Army and provided with the instruments. The work engagement instrument was then completed by each follower, while the MLQ was completed by the follower for his or her specific leader, who in this instance, were all officers in the South African Army. Descriptive statistics were obtained and correlations completed for the data, which indicated a significant correlation between the transformational leadership of officers and their followers’ work engagement. / Industrail and Organisational Psychology / M. A. (Industrail and Organisational Psychology)

This research explores the relationship between sense of coherence, work engagement and organisational commitment in an automotive development institution in South Africa. The study was conducted through quantitative research. The study used the Orientation to Life Questionnaire (OLQ) to measure sense of coherence, the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES) to measure work engagement and the Organisational Commitment Scale (OCS) to measure organisational commitment. A biographical questionnaire was also used. The questionnaires were administered to a sample of 46 employees, 37 of whom were based in the company’s Pretoria office and nine at their Eastern Cape office. In view of the fact that the sample was small, 100 % of the population was included in the study. A theoretical relationship between the constructs was determined and an empirical study provided evidence of the degree of relationship that existed between them. The results reveal significant relationships to exist between some sub-scales, however, statistical significance could not be reached for some correlations. / Psychology / M. Admin. (Industrial and Organisational Psychology)