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Existem muitos sistemas de escrita em uso pelo mundo. Quase todos eles são representações dos sons das línguas, compostos por poucas dezenas de símbolos. A escrita japonesa, porém, inclui caracteres chineses (kanji), que representam não só os sons mas também os sentidos; e, para isso, precisa empregar milhares de símbolos. A complexidade do sistema de escrita japonês torna-o mais difícil de aprender e de processar mentalmente. Por que então ele continua sendo usado até hoje? Haveria alguma vantagem? Investigando estas questões, descobrimos que a escrita japonesa permite formas de expressão que não seriam possíveis através da transcrição sonora pura, nem em sistemas de escrita mais simples. Esta observação é importante, não apenas para os estudos japoneses, mas para os estudos da linguagem escrita em geral: o caso japonês demonstra que a escrita não pode ser compreendida como um simples registro visual da fala, mas deve ser estudada como um sistema de acesso à linguagem com características próprias. Neste trabalho, analisamos algumas dessas formas de expressão específicas da escrita, tal como se apresentam no japonês. / There are many writing systems currently in use around the world. For almost all of them, the basic mechanism is using graphical symbols to represent the sounds of language. A few dozen symbols are enough for this purpose. Japanese writing, however, includes Chinese characters (kanji), which are related not only to sound but also to meaning; since there are many possible meanings, kanji number in the thousands. The complexity of Japanese writing makes it comparatively harder to learn, and harder to process mentally. Why, then, is it still in use? Are there any advantages to such a system? A closer look show that Japanese writing allows modes of expression which would be impossible in a phonetic transcription of speech, or in simpler writing systems. This is an important datum, not only for Japanese studies, but for the linguistic study of writing itself; the Japanese case clearly shows that writing cant be adequately described as merely a visual representation of speech, but must rather be analyzed as an independent system for accessing language. In this dissertation we discuss, from Japanese examples, some of these expressive techniques which can only be realized in a written medium.

Existem muitos sistemas de escrita em uso pelo mundo. Quase todos eles são representações dos sons das línguas, compostos por poucas dezenas de símbolos. A escrita japonesa, porém, inclui caracteres chineses (kanji), que representam não só os sons mas também os sentidos; e, para isso, precisa empregar milhares de símbolos. A complexidade do sistema de escrita japonês torna-o mais difícil de aprender e de processar mentalmente. Por que então ele continua sendo usado até hoje? Haveria alguma vantagem? Investigando estas questões, descobrimos que a escrita japonesa permite formas de expressão que não seriam possíveis através da transcrição sonora pura, nem em sistemas de escrita mais simples. Esta observação é importante, não apenas para os estudos japoneses, mas para os estudos da linguagem escrita em geral: o caso japonês demonstra que a escrita não pode ser compreendida como um simples registro visual da fala, mas deve ser estudada como um sistema de acesso à linguagem com características próprias. Neste trabalho, analisamos algumas dessas formas de expressão específicas da escrita, tal como se apresentam no japonês. / There are many writing systems currently in use around the world. For almost all of them, the basic mechanism is using graphical symbols to represent the sounds of language. A few dozen symbols are enough for this purpose. Japanese writing, however, includes Chinese characters (kanji), which are related not only to sound but also to meaning; since there are many possible meanings, kanji number in the thousands. The complexity of Japanese writing makes it comparatively harder to learn, and harder to process mentally. Why, then, is it still in use? Are there any advantages to such a system? A closer look show that Japanese writing allows modes of expression which would be impossible in a phonetic transcription of speech, or in simpler writing systems. This is an important datum, not only for Japanese studies, but for the linguistic study of writing itself; the Japanese case clearly shows that writing cant be adequately described as merely a visual representation of speech, but must rather be analyzed as an independent system for accessing language. In this dissertation we discuss, from Japanese examples, some of these expressive techniques which can only be realized in a written medium.

Particularly in recent years, prompted by the need to gain greater independent access to a wider range of information, many persons who are blind make extensive use of screen access technology, optical character recognition devices, refreshable Braille displays and electronic notetakers in a variety of contexts. These reading and writing media have proved to be so useful and effective, raising debates in the literature on whether there is a decline in the use of Braille, or whether Braille as a reading and writing medium would become obsolete. Following a discussion on the development of tactual reading and writing media as part of an historical background to blindness, as well as an evaluation of the various reading and writing media used in South Africa by persons who are blind, this study, using a quantitative approach with a survey design, aimed to determine the impact of the various reading and writing media on the education and employment of persons who are blind. Based on the findings of the study, what emerges forcefully with regard to the preference of a medium for reading or writing is that a greater number of persons who are blind prefer Braille and computers with speech output. Notwithstanding this, there is support for the need to provide instruction in the use of the various reading and writing media, highlighting the critical value and role of the various media. Additionally, while persons who are blind appear to be convinced that computers will not replace Braille, they were, however, divided on whether there is a decline in the use of Braille, and whether computers would replace audiotapes. Finally, conclusions, based mainly on the findings of the study are drawn, and recommendations, both for future research, and for an integrated reading and writing model, are made. / Educational Studies / D.Ed.(Special Needs Educstion)

Particularly in recent years, prompted by the need to gain greater independent access to a wider range of information, many persons who are blind make extensive use of screen access technology, optical character recognition devices, refreshable Braille displays and electronic notetakers in a variety of contexts. These reading and writing media have proved to be so useful and effective, raising debates in the literature on whether there is a decline in the use of Braille, or whether Braille as a reading and writing medium would become obsolete. Following a discussion on the development of tactual reading and writing media as part of an historical background to blindness, as well as an evaluation of the various reading and writing media used in South Africa by persons who are blind, this study, using a quantitative approach with a survey design, aimed to determine the impact of the various reading and writing media on the education and employment of persons who are blind. Based on the findings of the study, what emerges forcefully with regard to the preference of a medium for reading or writing is that a greater number of persons who are blind prefer Braille and computers with speech output. Notwithstanding this, there is support for the need to provide instruction in the use of the various reading and writing media, highlighting the critical value and role of the various media. Additionally, while persons who are blind appear to be convinced that computers will not replace Braille, they were, however, divided on whether there is a decline in the use of Braille, and whether computers would replace audiotapes. Finally, conclusions, based mainly on the findings of the study are drawn, and recommendations, both for future research, and for an integrated reading and writing model, are made. / Educational Studies / D.Ed.(Special Needs Educstion)

This dissertation presents the first full grammatical description of unprompted (spontaneous) speech in pidgin Chinook Jargon [synonyms Chinúk Wawa, Chinook]. The data come from a dialect I term ‘Kamloops Chinúk Wawa’, used in southern interior British Columbia circa 1900. I also present the first historical study and structural analysis of the shorthand-based ‘Chinuk pipa’ alphabet in which Kamloops Chinúk Wawa was written, primarily by Salish people. This study is made possible by the discovery of several hundred such texts, which I have transliterated and analyzed. The Basic Linguistic Theory-inspired (cf. Dixon 2010a,b) framework used here interprets Kamloops Chinúk Wawa as surprisingly ramified in morphological and syntactic structure, a finding in line with recent studies reexamining the status of pidgins by Bakker (e.g. 2003a,b, forthcoming) among others. Among the major findings: an unusually successful pidgin literacy including a widely circulated newspaper Kamloops Wawa, and language planning by the missionary J.M.R. Le Jeune, O.M.I. He planned both for the use of Kamloops Chinúk Wawa and this alphabet, and for their replacement by English. Additional sociolinguistic factors determining how Chinuk pipa was written included Salish preferences for learning to write by whole-word units (rather than letter by letter), and toward informal intra-community teaching of this first group literacy. In addition to compounding and conversion of lexical roots, Kamloops Chinúk Wawa morphology exploited three types of preposed grammatical morphemes—affixes, clitics, and particles. Virtually all are homonymous with and grammaticalized from demonstrably lexical morphs. Newly identified categories include ‘out-of-control’ transitivity marking and discourse markers including ‘admirative’ and ‘inferred’. Contrary to previous claims about Chinook Jargon (cf. Vrzic 1999), no overt passive voice exists in Kamloops Chinúk Wawa (nor probably in pan-Chinook Jargon), but a previously unknown ‘passivization strategy’ of implied agent demotion is brought to light. A realis-irrealis modality distinction is reflected at several scopal levels: phrase, clause and sentence. Functional differences are observed between irrealis clauses before and after main clauses. Polar questions are restricted to subordinate clauses, while alternative questions are formed by simple juxtaposition of irrealis clauses. Main-clause interrogatives are limited to content-question forms, optionally with irrealis marking. Positive imperatives are normally signaled by a mood particle on a realis clause, negative ones by a negative particle. Aspect is marked in a three-part ingressive-imperfective-completive system, with a marginal fourth ‘conative’. One negative operator has characteristically clausal, and another phrasal, scope. One copula is newly attested. Degree marking is largely confined to ‘predicative’ adjectives (copula complements). Several novel features of pronoun usage possibly reflect Salish L1 grammatical habits: a consistent animacy distinction occurs in third-person pronouns, where pan-Chinook Jargon 'iaka' (animate singular) and 'klaska' (animate plural) contrast with a null inanimate object/patient; this null and 'iaka' are non-specified for number; in intransitives, double exponence (repetition) of pronominal subjects is common; and pan-Chinook Jargon 'klaksta' (originally ‘who?’) and 'klaska' (originally ‘they’) vary freely with each other. Certain etymologically content-question forms are used also as determiners. Kamloops Chinúk Wawa’s numeral system is unusually regular and small for a pidgin; numerals are also used ordinally in a distinctly Chinook Jargon type of personal name. There is a null allomorph of the preposition 'kopa'. This preposition has additionally a realis complementizer function (with nominalized predicates) distinct from irrealis 'pus' (with verbal ones). Conjunction 'pi' also has a function in a syntactic focus-increasing and -reducing system. / Graduate