abstract / Physics / Doctoral / Doctor of Philosophy

The filtered cathodic vacuum arc (FCVA) technique is a well established deposition method for wear resistant mechanical coatings. More recently, this method has attracted attention for growing ZnO based transparent conducting films. However, the potential of FCVA deposition to prepare ZnO layers for electronic devices is largely unexplored. This thesis addresses the use of FCVA deposition for the fabrication of active ZnO based electronic devices. The structural, electrical and optical characteristics of unintentionally doped ZnO films grown on different sapphire substrates were systematically investigated. The potential of FCVA to grow both polar and non-polar ZnO films was demonstrated. The resulting films showed considerable promise for device applications with properties including high transparency(> 90%), moderate intrinsic carrier concentrations (10¹⁷ - 10¹⁹ cm⁻³), electron mobilities up to 110 cm⁻²/Vs, low surface roughness (< 5 nm) and well-structured photoluminescence. Post-growth annealing in oxygen at temperatures up to 800 C produced significant improvements in the electronic and optical properties of these films, due to the formation of larger grains with lower inter-grain potential barriers. Silver oxide (AgOᵪ ) and iridium oxide (IrOᵪ) Schottky diodes fabricated on annealed FCVA ZnO films showed ideality factors as low as 1.20, barrier heights up to 0.85 eV and high sensitivity to ultraviolet light (up to ̴ 10⁻⁵ at -2 V). Transparent and opaque MESFETs fabricated on these films showed well defined field effect characteristics, channel mobilities up to 70 cm⁻²/Vs and insensitivity to 1 mW/cm⁻² visible light. These devices were further subjected to extensive bias and temperature stress tests. MESFET stability appeared to be strongly dependent on Schottky gate type, bias conditions and ZnO film morphology. Positive bias stress of AgOᵪ gated devices resulted in irreversible damage, that is thought to be due to Ag electromigration across the gate interface. Mapping of the surface potential of the ZnO channel material with Kelvin probe force microscopy suggested a strong relationship between the defect density at grain boundaries and both channel mobility and current stability. Interval growth techniques were found to reduce the density of defects at grain boundaries and produced MESFETs with higher current stability. IrOᵪ gated devices showed superior bias stability and temperature resilience from 25 C-195 C.

Indium-Gallium-Zinc-Oxide (a-IGZO) is an amorphous oxide semiconductor that has been attracting increasing attention for use in flat panel display and optoelectronic applications. This is largely due to IGZO’s high mobility at low processing temperatures. In this thesis, IGZO films were successfully grown on polyethylene naphthalate (PEN) substrates by RF magnetron sputtering at room temperature. These films were flexible, transparent and had a good Hall mobility (5-12 cm2/Vs). High quality metal oxide Schottky contacts were fabricated on these as-grown IGZO/PEN films with on-off rectification ratios of up to 108. These were then used as the gate contacts in transparent metal semiconductor field effect transistors (MESFETs). The performance and device stability of these IGZO/PEN MESFETs were investigated via a series of stress tests in both dark conditions and under illumination at different wavelengths in the visible spectrum. During constant voltage stress testing under illumination, the threshold voltage shifted by -0.54 V and 0.38 V for negative and positive gate biasing, respectively. These shifts proved reversible when devices were left in dark conditions for extended periods of time. The effect of persistent photoconductivity after exposure to different illumination sources was examined, with three potential passivation coatings to reduce this unwanted effect explored. Transparent IGZO/PEN MESFETs with an absolute transmission of up to 75% were achieved with the use of ITO ohmic contacts. These devices survived mechanical bending down to a radius of 7 mm with negligible variation in on-current and threshold voltage. This allows for the possibility of incorporating their use in future applications such as flexible transparent electronics.

The widespread adoption of hybrid organic-inorganic solar cells has been delayed by low performance. Improving performance requires a firm understanding of how to optimize both material composition and processing parameters. In this thesis, we examine processing parameters that include solution composition, annealing temperature, and the rates of spin casting and evaporative coating. We also find that the optimal weight ratio for the active layer of a ZnO:P3HT solar cell is 40 wt. % ZnO. / text

Στο επίκεντρο της παρούσας διπλωματικής εργασίας, βρίσκεται η μελέτη μη γραμμικών οπτικών ιδιοτήτων, σύνθετων δομών κβαντικών τελειών οξειδίου του ψευδαργύρου (ZnO). Αρχικά θα κάνουμε μια γρήγορη επισκόπηση των ιδιοτήτων των νανοδομημένων συστημάτων, περίπτωση των οποίων αποτελούν οι ημιαγώγιμες κβαντικές τελείες, καθώς και οι σύνθετες νανοδομές του ZnO, ενώ θα επισημάνουμε και τον στόχο που καλείται να εκπληρώσει η εργασία μας. Προκειμένου να υπολογίσουμε την ηλεκτρονική δομή του συστήματος που εξετάζουμε, χρησιμοποιούμε την μέθοδο PMM (Potential Morphing Method), τις βασικές αρχές της οποίας παραθέτουμε στο δεύτερο κεφάλαιο. Στο επόμενο κεφάλαιο παρουσιάζουμε το θεωρητικό μας μοντέλο, βασισμένο στην μέθοδο των πλατών πιθανότητας για τον αναλυτικό υπολογισμό της γραμμικής (1) και της μη γραμμικής οπτικής επιδεκτικότητας (3), οι οποίες και αποτυπώνουν τις οπτικές ιδιότητες του συστήματος μας. Τέλος περιγράφουμε την δομή του σύνθετου συστήματος κβαντικών τελειών πυρήνα/κελύφους (core/shell quantum dots), παραθέτουμε τα αποτελέσματα του υπολογισμού της ηλεκτρονικής δομής και παρουσιάζουμε την συμπεριφορά της γραμμικής, της μη γραμμικής καθώς και της ολικής επιδεκτικότητας του συστήματος που εξετάζουμε, μέσω διαγραμμάτων και του απαραίτητου σχολιασμού των αποτελεσμάτων μας. / At the center of our interest in this thesis lies the study of nonlinear optical properties of complex Zinc Oxide (ZnO) quantum dots structures. At first we will have a short review of the nanostructured systems properties in general and then we will discuss the properties of semiconductor quantum dots as well as the complex ZnO nano-structures. We will also notify the goal of this thesis. In order to calculate the electronic structure of our investigating system we will use the PMM (Potential Morphing Method) method, the basic principles of which we quote on the second chapter. In the next chapter we present our theoretical model, based in the probability amplitudes method, for the analytical calculation of both the linear (1) and nonlinear susceptibility (3) which illustrate the optical properties of our system. At the end we describe our complex core/shell quantum dots system, we quote the results of the electronic structure calculation and we present the behaviour of linear, nonlinear as well as the total susceptibility of our system through graphs and the necessary discussion of our results.

Στην παρούσα εργασία δοκιμάστηκαν καινοτόμα υλικά όπως το οξείδιο του ψευδαργύρου (ZnO) ως προς τις δυνατότητές τους να χρησιμοποιηθούν σε διατάξεις μετατροπής της ηλιακής ενέργειας σε ηλεκτρισμό. Η διάταξη η οποία χρησιμοποιήθηκε στην παρούσα μελέτη είναι μια φωτοηλεκτροχημική κυψελίδα, η δομή της οποίας περιλαμβάνει: (α) το ηλεκτρόδιο της ανόδου (φωτοάνοδος) το οποίο αποτελείται από έναν ημιαγωγό μεγάλου ενεργειακού χάσματος όπως το ZnO, (β) το ηλεκτρόδιο της καθόδου το οποίο φέρει τον ηλεκτροκαταλύτη και (γ) τον ηλεκτρολύτη ο οποίος φέρει το κατάλληλο οξειδοαναγωγικό ζεύγος. Καθώς το ηλιακό φως προσπίπτει στην κυψελίδα φωτόνια απορροφούνται από τα ημιαγώγιμα στρώματα. Αυτό έχει σαν αποτέλεσμα την απορρόφηση των φωτονίων από τα ηλεκτρόνια, τη διέγερση των ηλεκτρονίων αυτών στη ζώνη αγωγιμότητας, τη δημιουργία οπών στη ζώνη σθένους στη θέση των ηλεκτρονίων, και τελικά τη δημιουργία προυποθέσεων κυκλοφορίας των φορέων ανάμεσα στα υλικά με στόχο τη συλλογή τους εξωτερικά και την αξιοποίηση του παραγόμενου φωτορεύματος. Στην παρούσα εργασία κατασκευάστηκαν ηλεκτρόδια με φωτοάνοδο ZnO με τρεις διαφορετικές μεθόδους, προκειμένου να αξιοποιηθούν σε φωτοκυψέλες καυσίμου και σε ηλιακές κυψελίδες στην κατεύθυνση βελτιστοποίησης της απόδοσης τους. Τα ηλεκτρόδια της φωτοανόδου χαρακτηρίστηκαν με ηλεκτρονική μικρσοσκοπία σάρωσης (SEM). Το οξείδιο του ψευδαργύρου (ZnO) αν και είναι ένας αποτελεσματικός φωτοκαταλύτης με κατάλληλο ενεργειακό χάσμα, βαρύνεται με το μειονέκτημα της απορρόφησης μόνο της υπεριώδους ακτινοβολίας και έτσι στην παρούσα μελέτη έχουν γίνει προσπάθειες φωτοευαισθητοποίησής του με ημιαγωγούς μικρότερου ενεργειακού χάσματος, γνωστοί ως Quantum Dots (κβαντικές τελείες) και απορροφούν στο ορατό τμήμα της ακτινοβολίας. Τέλος ως ηλεκτροκαταλύτες στην κάθοδο χρησιμοποιήθηκαν Pt/C σε Carbon Cloth στις φωτοκυψέλες καυσίμου και Cu2S από ορείχαλκο στις ηλιακές κυψελίδες. / In the present thesis novel materials such as ZnO were tested for their potential use in devices that convert solar energy into electricity. The structure that was used in the present study was a photoelectrochemical cell which includes (a) the anode electrode which consists a wide gap semiconductor such as zinc oxide (b) the cathode (counter electrode) which is normally a noble metal with a large work function and (c) the electrolyte, which comprises a suitable redox couple. As sunlight falls on the cell, photons ar absorbed by the semiconductor layer. This results in the absorption of photons by the electrons, the excitation of these electrons in the conduction band, creating holes in the valence band and ultimately the creation of charge mobility conditions for the carriers between the combined materials with the purpose to collect them externally and to utilize the produced photocurrent. In the present study zinc oxide electrodes were synthesized with three different methods in the direction of the optimization of the performance of the photoelectrochemical cells. The prepared electrodes were characterized by Scanning electron microscope (SEM). Although nanostructured zinc oxide is a capable catalyst with suitable energy gap, it has the disadvantage of the absorption by only UVA light. Thus there have been efforts for its photo-activation through smaller energy band gap semiconductors, known as Quantum dots (QDs), that absorb in the visible part of solar spectrum. As cathode electrocatalysts, Pt/C in carbon cloth and Cu2S were tested in photofuel cells and solar cells respectively.

This dissertation focuses on characterizing the nanoscale and surface averaged electrical properties of transparent conducting oxide (TCO) electrodes such as indium tin oxide (ITO) and transparent metal-oxide (MO) electron selective interlayers (ESLs), such as zinc oxide (ZnO), the ability of these materials to rapidly extract photogenerated charges from organic semiconductors (OSCs) used in organic photovoltaic (OPV) cells, and evaluating their impact on the power conversion efficiency (PCE) of OPV devices. In Chapter 1, we will introduce the fundamental principles regarding the need for low cost power generation, the benefits of OPV technologies, as well as the key principles that govern the operation of OPV devices and the key innovations that have advanced this technology. In Chapter 2 of this dissertation, we demonstrate an innovative application of conductive probe atomic force microscopy (CAFM) to map the nanoscale electrical heterogeneity at the interface between an electrode, such as ITO, and an OSC such as the p-type OSC copper phthalocyanine (CuPc).(MacDonald et al. (2012) ACS Nano, 6, p. 9623) In this work we collected arrays of J-V curves, using a CAFM probe as the top contact of CuPc/ITO systems, to map the local J-V responses. By comparing J-V responses to known models for charge transport, we were able to determine if the local rate-limiting step for charge transport is through the OSC (ohmic) or the CuPc/ITO interface (nonohmic). These results strongly correlate with device PCE, as demonstrated through the controlled addition of insulating alkylphosphonic acid self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) at the ITO/CuPc interface. Subsequent chapters focus on the electrical property characterization of RF-magnetron sputtered ZnO (sp-ZnO) ESL films on ITO substrates. We have shown that the energetic alignment of ESLs and the organic semiconducting (OSC) active materials plays a critical role in determining the PCE of OPV devices and the appearance of, or lack thereof, UV light soaking sensitivity. For ZnO and fullerene interfaces, we have shown that either minimizing the oxygen partial pressure during ZnO deposition or exposure of ZnO to UV light minimizes the energetic offset at this interface and maximizes device PCE. We have used a combination of device testing, device modeling, and impedance spectroscopy to fully characterize the effects that energetic alignment has on the charge carrier transport and charge carrier distribution within the OPV device. This work can be found in Chapter 3 of this dissertation and is in preparation for publication. We have also shown that the local properties of sp-ZnO films varies as a function of the underlying ITO crystal face. We show that the local ITO crystal face determines the local nucleation and growth of the sp-ZnO films. We demonstrate that this effects the morphology, the chemical resistance to etching as well as the surface electrical properties of the sp-ZnO films. This is likely due to differences in the surface mobility of sputtered Zn and O atoms on these crystal faces during film nucleation. This affects the nanoscale distribution of electrical and chemical properties. As a result we demonstrate that the PCE, and UV sensitivity of the J-V response of OPVs using sp-ZnO ESLs are strongly impacted by the distribution of ITO crystal faces at the surface of the substrate. This work can be found in Chapter 4 of this dissertation and is in preparation for publication. These studies have contributed to a detailed understanding of the role that electrical heterogeneity, insulating barriers and energetic alignment at the MO/OSC interface play in OPV PCE.

A close relation between structural and optical properties of any semiconductor material does exist. An adequate knowledge and understanding of this relationship is necessary for fabrication of devices with desired optical properties. The structural quality and hence the optical properties can be influenced by the growth method and the substrate used. The aim of this work was to investigate the change in optical properties caused by growth techniques and substrate modification. To study the influence of growth technique on optical properties, ZnO nanostructures were grown using atmospheric pressure metal organic chemical vapor deposition (APMOCVD) and chemical bath deposition (CBD) technique. The structural and optical investigations were performed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and micro photoluminescence (μ-PL), respectively. The results revealed that the grown structures were in the shape of nano-rods with slightly different shapes. Optical investigation revealed that low temperature PL spectrum for both the samples was dominated by neutral donor bound excitons emission and it tends to be replaced by free exciton (FX) emission in the temperature range of 60-140K. Both excitonic emissions show a typical red-shift with increase in temperature but with a different temperature dynamics for both the sample and this is due to difference in exciton-phonon interaction because of the different sizes of nano-rods. Defect level emission (DLE) is negligible in both the sample at low temperature but it increased linearly in intensity after 130 K up to the room temperature.Modification in substrate can also play a significant role on structural and optical properties of the material. Specially variation in the miscut angle of substrate can help to control the lateral sizes of the Nanostructures and thus can help to obtain better structural andoptical quality. Also optical quality is a key requirement for making blue and ultraviolet LEDs. Therefore, ZnO Nanostructures were grown on SiC on-axis and off-axis substrates having different off-cut angles. Morphological investigation revealed thatgrown structures are epitaxial for the case when substrate off-cut angle is higher and deposition rate is low. Low temperature PL spectrum of all the samples was dominated by neutral donor bound excitons and free exciton emission become dominant at 100 K for all the samples which completely eliminate the neutral donor bound excitonic emission at 160K. Two electron satellite of the neutral donor bound excitons and LO phonons of excitonic features are also present. A typical red-shift in excitonic features was evident in temperature dependence measurement. Red-shift behavior of free exciton for all the samples was treated by applying Varshni empirical expression and several important parameter, such as, the Debye temperature and the band gap energy value was extracted. Thermal quenching behavior was also observed and treated by thermal quenching expression and value of the activation energy for non-radiative channel was extracted. The results that are obtained demonstrate a significant contribution in the fields of ZnO based nano-optoelectronics and nano-electronics.

Zinc oxide (ZnO) nanostructures, especially nanowires, have been one of the most important semiconductive materials used for photocatalysis due to their unique material properties and remarkable performance. In this project, vertically-aligned ZnO nanowires on glass substrate have been synthesized by using the facile hydrothermal methods with the help of pre-coated ZnO seeding layer. The crystalline structure, morphology and UV-Vis transmission spectra of the as-synthesized sample were characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), field-emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM) and Ultra-violet Visible (UV-Vis) Spectrophotometer. The photocatalytic activity of the sample was examined for the photocatalytic degradation of methyl orange (MO) as the test dye in aqueous solution under UV-A irradiation. The extent of direct hydrolysis of the MO dye under UV light without the photocatalysts was first measured to eliminate the possible contribution from the undesired variables to the overall efficiency. The effects of pH and initial concentration of the MO solution, as well as the nanowire growth time, on the photocatalytic efficiency have been investigated, in order to determine the optimal conditions for photocatalytic applications of ZnO nanowires in the industry. Furthermore, the reproducibility of the experimental methods used in this project was tested to ensure the reliability of the experimental results obtained; and the reusability of the prepared ZnO nanowire arrays were also evaluated to investigate the stability of the products for photocatalytic applications in a large scale. In addition, a micro-chamber based microfluidic device with integrated ZnO nanowire arrays has been fabricated and used for photodegradation studies of MO solution under continuous-flow conditions. As expected, the micro-chamber based approach exhibited much improved photodegradation efficiency as compared to the conventional method using bulk dye solution. The effects of the flow rate and chamber height of the microfluidic device have also been investigated in order to determine the optimal experimental conditions for photodegradation reactions in microfluidic devices.

In doctoral dissertation, results of investigation on zinc oxide based semiconductor layers and heterostructures for application in optoelectronics by spectroscopy methods are presented. High quality zinc oxide layers and heterostructures were characterized optically. That is ZnO, ZnO:Ga and MgZnO epitaxial layers grown by molecular beam epitaxy technique, ZnO:N layers grown by magnetron sputtering method, CdZnO/ZnO quantum wells structures for light-emitting diodes grown on GaN layers by combined molecular beam epitaxy and metalorganic chemical vapor deposition techniques. In this work, new data on dynamics and interaction of photoexcited carriers in zinc oxide based structures were acquired. It was shown, that the contribution of impurities bound excitons in the inelastic interaction of free excitons influences the position of luminescence band of the interaction in spectrum. In MgZnO epitaxial layers, the localization of carriers in the field of two different localization centers is described. Due to the localization the radiative recombination efficiency increases significantly and it has importance for application in optoelectronic devices. Investigation of the CdZnO/ZnO quantum wells structures for green spectral range light-emitting diodes showed that low radiative recombination efficiency at room temperature is mainly due to weak carrier localization effect, which is responsible for high efficiency of conventional InGaN/GaN quantum wells structures. / Daktaro disertacijoje pristatomi cinko oksido pagrindu užaugintų puslaidininkinių sluoksnių ir jų įvairialyčių darinių, skirtų taikymams optoelektronikoje, tyrimų rezultatai spektroskopijos metodais. Optiškai charakterizuoti aukštos kokybės cinko oksido sluoksniai ir jų įvairialyčiai dariniai: ZnO, ZnO:Ga ir MgZnO epitaksiniai sluoksniai, auginti molekulinės epitaksijos būdu, ZnO:N sluoksniai, auginti magnetroninio dulkinimo būdu, šviesos diodams paruošti CdZnO/ZnO kvantinių duobių dariniai ant GaN sluoksnių, auginti apjungiant molekulinės epitaksijos ir cheminio metaloorganinio junginio nusodinimo iš dujinės fazės auginimo metodus. Šiame darbe surinkta naujų duomenų apie fotosužadintų krūvininkų dinamiką ir sąveiką cinko oksido dariniuose. Nustatyta, kad netamprioje laisvų eksitonų sąveikoje dalyvaujantys prie priemaišų pririšti eksitonai įtakoja sąveikos liuminescencijos juostos padėtį spektre. Aprašyta krūvininkų lokalizacija MgZnO epitaksiniuose sluoksniuose dviejų skirtungų lokalizacijos centrų lauke. Dėl to žymiai padidėja spindulinės rekombinacijos efektyvumas, kas turi didelės svarbos taikymams optoelektronikos prietaisams. CdZnO/ZnO kvantinių duobių darinių, skirtų žalios spektro srities šviesos diodams, tyrimai parodė, kad mažas spindulinės rekombinacijos efektyvumas kambario temperatūroje yra dėl ženkliai silpnesnio krūvninkų lokalizacijos efekto, kuris užtikrina didelį efektyvumą įprastuose InGaN/GaN kvantinių duobių dariniuose.