Phylum Porifera (Grant, 1836) are sessile metazoans with a differentiated inhalant and exhalant aquiferous system with external pores. Lacking a tissue grade of construction, sponges can reach two well-differentiated regions, the ectosome (external layer free of choanocytes) and the choanosome (internal region with choanocytes). As the most likely primitive metazoans, their challenging structural organization, physiology for biocalcification and trophic requirements allowed sponges to rapidly colonize distinct environments and built important sponge reefs during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras, making them an ecologically relevant group principally in marine benthic communities. To date, sponges are still ecologically important among benthic fauna although the role as reef builders in modern coral reefs has changed in favor of scleractinian corals. Nonetheless, sponges have demonstrated a huge capacity to adapt and spread in many habitats contributing to organization and functioning at both community and ecosystem levels. One of the keys of the evolutionary success of this group lies in the close association between sponges and microbes that dates back to the Precambrian era. The need to be defended may have arisen from the lack of motility of sponges and several mechanisms emerged to fulfill their demand including a chemical protection. Many sponges would have taken advantage of associated microbes to use their metabolites as a defense barrier against predators, competitors or foulers. This particular symbiosis has consequently become a key factor in biotic interactions within the sponge research. To date, chemical ecology and microbial ecology are two independent areas of the sponge research with ecological implications that occasionally converge at the same point. We want to analyze the evolution of the sponge chemical and microbial ecology from the very beginning, to quantify their impact on the scientific community, and to compare both research areas. This PhD dissertation has been conceived to study the chemical and microbial ecology of sponges using the demosponge Aplysina aerophoba (Nardo, 1833) as a model species because its secondary chemistry and its associated microbial community are well studied and it is quite abundant in our study area (Northwestern Mediterranean and Canary Islands). Beyond the knowledge achieved about the major chemistry and bacterial assemblages in A. aerophoba, we have been able to explore the variation sources of the natural products and the sponge microbial consortium. Additionally, we have assessed the putative relationships between the host bacterial community and the production of secondary metabolites in this species. We explored changes in the abundance of secondary metabolites and the relative composition of bacterial assemblages in A. aerophoba at multiple spatial (from few centimeters to thousand kilometers) and temporal (months and years) scales. The approach used allowed us to investigate which is the magnitude of the variance attributable to the distinct spatial and temporal scales and the most relevant scale at which the abundance of secondary metabolites and bacterial symbionts varied. We also investigated the relationship between natural products and microbial community structure by assessing whether both parameters covary at multiple scales. Finally, we experimentally addressed whether different light exposures can modify chemical and microbial profiles in the external and internal regions of A. aerophoba. In summary, the production of natural products in sponges and the abundance and phylogenetic composition of the host-associated microbial community mainly depend to a large extent on the sponge-species and the ecological factors with spatial and temporal variations (e.g., light, predation, competition, fouling). The host state (i.e., stress) is also a key factor that may be the main driver of symbiotic shifts causing a breakdown in the sponge health and making the symbiont communities unstable and likely the sponge chemical defense. The combination between abiotic and biotic factors may finally determine the concentration of bioactive compounds and associated microbial diversity as the abiotic environmental context can control the outcomes of biotic interactions, and biotic interactions often moderate the effect of abiotic factors. For that reason, it is not an easy task to actually figure out the factors that limit or enhance chemical and microbial variability. Further experiments and time-series observations are needed to reveal the underlying processes hidden. / El filo Porifera (Grant, 1836) está compuesto por metazoos sésiles con un sistema acuífero diferenciado del que forman parte los coanocitos que generan un flujo de agua unidireccional. A pesar de no presentar auténticos tejidos, las esponjas pueden llegar a desarrollar dos regiones bien definidas, el ectosoma (capa externa) y el coanosoma (región interna). Estos organismos representan un grupo ecológicamente importante del bentos marino con gran capacidad de adaptación y dispersión en muchos hábitats, contribuyendo así en la organización y funcionamiento a nivel de comunidad y ecosistema. Una de las claves del éxito evolutivo de las esponjas yace en la relación estrecha que presentan desde el Precámbrico con microorganismos a través de la cual desarrollaron una protección química. Muchas esponjas habrían utilizado los metabolitos secundarios de origen microbiano como defensa química. A día de hoy se han desarrollado dos áreas de investigación, la ecología química y la microbiana de esponjas, de las que realmente desconocemos su origen o su impacto. Dado el vacío existente de estudios que evalúen la comunidad bacteriana de esponjas como fuente de compuestos bioactivos, teníamos la oportunidad de integrar estos dos campos de la ecología de esponjas investigando la relación entre productos naturales y microorganismos simbiontes, con el fin de entender la funcionalidad de la comunidad bacteriana en el huésped. Esta tesis fue concebida para estudiar la ecología química y microbiana de la esponja Aplysina aerophoba (Nardo, 1833), cuya química y comunidad bacteriana asociada han sido objeto de muchos estudios previos. El principal objetivo fue explorar las fuentes de variación tanto de los productos naturales adscritos a Aplysina como de su estructura microbiana e inferir una posible relación entre comunidad de microorganismos y la producción de metabolitos secundarios. La aproximación que utilizamos consistía en explorar la variabilidad natural de los compuestos bioactivos y de la estructura microbiana de la esponja Aplysina aerophoba a distintas escalas espaciales (desde pocos centímetros hasta miles de kilómetros) y temporales (meses, años), y evaluar el efecto de factores ambientales, como la luz, en los perfiles químicos y microbianos. Posteriormente, correlacionar ambos patrones de variación e inferir alguna asociación potencial entre productos naturales y simbiontes microbianos. Resumiendo, la producción de metabolitos secundarios en esponjas y la composición filogenética de la microbiota asociada depende esencialmente de la especie de esponja, de los factores ecológicos con variación espacial y temporal, como también del estado del huésped (si presenta o no estrés). La combinación entre factores abióticos y bióticos determinará en última instancia la abundancia de defensas químicas y la diversidad microbiana debido a una autorregulación entre ambos tipos de factores.

En esta tesis se ha estudiado la reproducción y el cultivo larvario de la corvina. En el primer capítulo se abordan los estudios realizados sobre reproducción y optimización de protocolos de inducción a la puesta mediante tratamientos hormonales para que la corvina (tanto de origen salvaje como de cultivo) se reproduzca en cautividad a fin de obtener huevos y larvas de buena calidad estudiándose además los parámetros que determinan la calidad de las puestas obtenidas. Por último se han comparado los resultados en cuanto a inducción y calidad de puesta de los reproductores salvajes y de cultivo. En la segunda parte se abordan aspectos relacionados con el cultivo larvario. Se han determinado diferentes parámetros que influyen en el crecimiento y la supervivencia larvaria, como la intensidad de luz y el fotoperiodo óptimos y la desinfección de las presas vivas y larvas con Ox-Aquaculture® (50% de peróxido de hidrógeno). Por otro lado también se ha estudiado el desarrollo del esqueleto de las larvas de corvina con el fin de determinar posibles deformaciones esqueléticas, la selección de presas por parte de las larvas mediante el marcaje de nauplios de Artemia con microesferas fluorescentes y los requerimientos nutricionales y el nivel adecuado de ácido docosahexanoico (DHA) en las presas vivas para obtener un mayor crecimiento y supervivencia de las larvas de corvina. / In this thesis, a study about several aspects of the reproduction and larval rearing of meagre is presented. In the first chapter about reproduction the adequate hormonal treatments for meagre (wild and cultured fish) to obtain enough quantity and quality of spawnings were optimized, and the quality parameters of the eggs established. A comparison of the results obtained from wild and cultured broodstocks is also presented. In the second chapter on larval rearing different parameters that have a high influence on larval growth and survival, such as light intensity and photoperiod, and disinfection of the live prey and larvae with Ox-Aquaculture® (50% of hydrogen peroxide) were studied. The development of the skeleton of meagre larvae in order to determine possible skeletal deformities prey selection by the larvae using labeled Artemia with fluorescent microspheres and the nutritional requirements and appropriate level of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) in live prey for a proper growth and survival of meagre larvae are also presented.

Animals have to eat a certain amount of food every day to survive. Since trophic resources are usually found in exposed locations, animals are in risk of predation while feeding, and face the well known trade-off between predation and starvation risks. Animals may reduce predation risk by scanning for predators. However, an increase in vigilance entails an increase in exposure time to predators. Therefore, animals may increase food intake to reduce foraging bouts at the cost of vigilance or may do the opposite. Animals may also reduce predation risk without increasing vigilance by joining groups. However, when food items are concentrated in some defendable patches, individuals will fight to access them, leading to interference competition. Birds have developed different vigilance and foraging strategies to cope with all these trade-offs. These strategies can be adapted to the environmental conditions and type of predators, and will highly differ according to the genetic, phenotypic and ecological characters of the individuals. In this thesis I investigated how wintering Eurasian siskins (Carduelis spinus) adjusted their vigilance and foraging behaviour to predation risk and competition, and how this adjustment varied according to conspicuousness, residence status and personality of focal birds. I also studied how resident and transient siskins regulated their body mass to predation risk. In order to determine the differential effects of predation risk and competition on the behaviour of siskins, I designed an experiment with three feeders differing in predation risk and interference competition. I captured the siskins every week and marked them with aluminium rings (at first capture) and colour rings (if residents). From each bird, I measured body mass, wing length and plumage coloration cues. I filmed the siskins foraging at feeders from a hide. Then I analyzed the video recordings and selected a sample of birds at each feeder to study the effect of environmental factors, and selected pairs of birds belonging to different cohorts of sex, residence and personality to compare their vigilance and foraging behaviour. I also compared body mass of a large sample of residents and transients in two periods with and without avian predators. I found that siskins adjusted their vigilance behaviour specifically to the environmental conditions. Vigilance to predators, achieved by reducing inter-scan durations, was less costly in terms of food intake rate than vigilance to flockmates, achieved by increasing scan durations. Siskin males were more brightly coloured and detectable than females, and showed a vigilance system more oriented to predator detection, supporting (together with the correlation between coloration and vigilance in males) the view of a predation cost to conspicuousness. Resident and transient siskins showed a different vigilance and foraging strategy. Residents were more confident in vigilance to reduce predation risk while transients preferred to reduce foraging bout lengths. Transient siskins were in higher predation risk because of their vigilance and foraging behaviour, and this was related both to their unfamiliarity with the area and their subordination to residents. Proactive male siskins showed a vigilance system that improved their ability to detect predators as compared with reactive males, supporting the view of a behavioural compensation for their personality trait (and not the existence of behavioural carryovers). Resident siskin males adjusted their body mass to the presence of predators at the foraging area, something that transients could not do because of their site unfamiliarity. In general, dominant individuals (whether males, residents or proactive birds) showed a foraging behaviour that prioritized the reduction in predation risk and not the increase in food intake rate, as compared to subordinates. Dominance alone cannot account for our results, although it probably had some effect in all the comparisons. / En aquesta tesi vaig estudiar el comportament de vigilància i d'alimentació de lluers hivernants a tres menjadores que diferien en risc de depredació i competència. Vaig determinar com els ocells ajustaven la vigilància a aquestes variables, i vaig comparar el comportament dels ocells pertanyents a diferents classes de sexe, estatus de residència i personalitat, per veure si adoptaven diferents estratègies. Els lluers van ajustar de manera diferent el seu comportament al risc de depredació i la competència. La vigilància dirigida als depredadors, assolida tot reduint la durada dels intervals entre vigilàncies, va resultar ser menys costosa en termes d'ingesta d'aliment que la vigilància a companys d'estol, assolida mitjançant l'increment de la durada de les vigilàncies. Els mascles de lluer van ser més brillants i fàcils de detectar que les femelles, i van mostrar un comportament més orientat a la detecció de depredadors, cosa que dóna suport (junt amb la correlació entre coloració i vigilància en mascles) a l'existència d'un cost de depredació associat a la conspicuïtat del plomatge. Els lluers residents van adoptar un sistema de vigilància que els exposava a menor risc de depredació que els transeünts. A més, a diferència d'aquests, van confiar sobretot en la vigilància a l'hora de reduir el risc de depredació. Aquestes diferències estarien relacionades tant amb el grau de coneixement de la zona com amb la dominància. Els mascles proactius van mostrar un sistema de vigilància que millorava la seva capacitat per detectar aviat els depredadors en comparació amb els mascles reactius, cosa que dóna suport a la idea d'una compensació comportamental del tret de personalitat. Els mascles residents van ajustar la seva massa corporal a la presència d'un depredador aeri a la zona, cosa que no van fer els transeünts segurament pel seu desconeixement del risc de depredació. En general, els individus dominants (mascles, residents o individus proactius) van mostrar un comportament d'alimentació que prioritzava la reducció del risc de depredació i no l'increment en la ingesta d'aliment. La dominància per sí sola no pot explicar els resultats de les comparacions, malgrat que pot tenir un cert efecte en totes elles.

No existían estudios sobre la presencia de chinches en el trigo duro en Italia, incluida la Isla de Cerdeña. Según los niveles de infestación de las chinches de los cereales habrá un porcentaje más o menos alto de granos dañados por la actividad alimenticia de las chinches. Esta actividad implica la inyección de proteasas en los granos de trigo. Las proteasas atacan las proteínas, que son las que tienen mayor influencia en la calidad de la sémola y la pasta producida con el trigo duro. En este trabajo de tesis, se estudia la presencia de las chinches de los cereales en el cultivo de trigo duro de Cerdeña, así como la influencia de esta plaga en el trigo duro, en la fracción proteica, particularmente en las gliadinas y gluteninas, y en el comportamiento de la sémola y la pasta derivadas de trigo duro con distintos porcentajes de granos dañados por las chinches de los cereales. A continuación se exponen las conclusiones principales de la tesis: 1 – Se detecta en Cerdeña la presencia de chinches de los cereales en el cultivo de trigo duro, siendo 4 las especies encontradas E. austriaca, A. germari, E. maura y A. acuminata. 2 – Dado que en algunos campos, las densidades de chinches de los cereales sobrepasó el umbral de daño sería aconsejable un seguimiento para la evaluación y control razonado de la plaga. 3 – La actividad alimenticia de las chinches de los cereales tiene una fuerte influencia sobre las proteínas del trigo duro predominantemente sobre la fracción de gluteninas. Las gluteninas se despolimerizan rápidamente y casi en toda su totalidad de forma independiente de la temperatura. Las gliadinas se degradan con menor intensidad y de forma dependiente de la temperatura y del tiempo. 4 – La presencia de granos dañados por las chinches de los cereales afecta a la calidad del trigo duro de forma importante ya a partir de del 2,5% de granos dañados. 5 – La presencia de granos dañados por las chinches de los cereales, ya a partir del 2,5%, afecta significativamente y de forma negativa al test SDS de sedimentación, del peso hectolítrico y del peso de mil granos, parámetros que determinan las características físico-químicas del grano de trigo duro. 6 – La presencia de granos dañados por las chinches de los cereales afecta a la calidad reológica de las sémolas. Un 2,5 % de granos picados disminuye ya de forma significativa la tenacidad (P) y la fuerza (W) en el ensayo alveográfico. A partir de un 5% se observa un un debilitamiento de la fracción proteica en el ensayo del Mixolab. 7 – La calidad de la pasta alimenticia (“spaghetti”), considerando la absorción de agua en cocción, la pérdida en cocción, la materia orgánica total (TOM) y la evaluación sensorial, no se vio perjudicada por la presencia de granos picados por las chinches de los cereales. / There were no studies on the presence of wheat bugs in durum wheat in Italy, including the island of Sardinia. Feeding activity of wheat bugs involves the injection of proteases in wheat grains. Proteins are the components that have the greatest influence on the quality of semolina and pasta. In this thesis, we study the presence of wheat bugs in durum wheat in Sardinia, and the influence of this pest in durum wheat protein fraction, particularly in the gliadin and glutenin. Also, we studied the influence in the behaviour and quality of semolina and pasta durum wheat derived from different percentages of damaged kernels by wheat bugs. 1 - The presence of wheat bugs is detected in Sardinia durum wheat fields. Four species were found: E. austriaca, A. germari, E. maura and A. acuminata. 2 – As in some fields, the damage threshold by wheat bugs was exceeded, it would be advisable to monitor the pest in order to assess an efficient control. 3 - Wheat bugs feeding activity has a strong influence on durum wheat proteins, predominantly on the glutenin fraction. Glutenins depolymerize rapidly and almost completely independently of temperature. Gliadins degrade less intensively, and their degradation depends on temperature and time. 4 - Grains damaged by the wheat bugs affect durum wheat quality significantly from 2.5% damaged kernels. 5 - The presence of wheat bugs damaged kernels from 2.5% significantly affects the SDS sedimentation test, test weight and thousand grain weight. Those parameters determine the physicochemical characteristics of durum wheat grain. 6 - The presence of damaged grain by wheat bugs affects semolina rheological quality. The alveographic indexes tenacity (P) and strength (W) significantly decrease from 2.5% of damaged grains. From 5% there is a weakening of the protein fraction in Mixolab test. 7 - The pasta quality, considering the absorption of water, cooking loss, total organic matter (TOM) and sensory evaluation was not affected by the presence of wheat bugs damaged grains.

En aquesta memòria de tesi es detalla la quantificació de biomarcadors d’exposició (acumulació de Pb, Hg, Cd, Tl, Fe, Mg, Zn, Cu, Mn, Mo, Co, Ni, Cr, Sr, Ba i B a teixits tous i durs) i d’efecte (morfometria, hematologia, activitat enzimàtica, genotoxicitat i histopatologia) en un total de 243 exemplars de musaranya comuna, Crocidura russula (Hermann, 1780). En el present estudi, es va tenir en compte la importància de l’edat i el sexe en els paràmetres quantificats ja que són dos factors biòtics que expliquen part de la variabilitat observada. Les zones d’estudi van ser 4 zones contaminades i 4 zones de referència triades per la seva importància tant mediambiental (6 de les 8 zones estudiades tenen estatus de protecció parcial o total) com d’interès per la societat: l’abocador de Garraf, el més gran de la península Ibèrica, la mina abandonada d’Aljustrel a la zona portuguesa de la faixa piritosa ibèrica, el Parc Nacional de Doñana afectat pel vessament de la mina de pirita d’Aznalcóllar, situada a la part espanyola de la faixa piritosa ibèrica i el Delta de l’Ebre afectat diverses activitats humanes incloent caça, industria i residus domèstics. Dels exemplars analitzats, 138 van ser capturats pròpiament per estudis ecotoxicològics a 3 de les zones contaminades (Garraf, Aljustrel i Doñana) i 105 eren mostres de col•lecció procedents d’altres estudis ecològics (Delta de l’Ebre). Especialment en les zones contaminades estudiades, es van observar marcades diferències en la bioacumulació entre elements essencials i no essencials per diferències en biodisponibilitat, toxicitat, i capacitat de transferència i biomagnificació al llarg de les cadenes tròfiques entre ambdós grups d'elements. Els majors augments detectats als teixits de les musaranyes de les zones contaminades es van donar entre els metalls pesants no essencials (Pb, Cd, Hg, Tl i Ni), els nivells tissulars dels quals no estan metabòlicament regulats a mamífers, donant com a resultat alts increments a teixits durs i tous quan augmenta la biodisponibilitat al medi ambient. Dels elements quantificats només Pb, Hg, Cd, i, possiblement Tl, Ni, B, Ba i Sr, van acumular-se fins a nivells que poden ser tòxics en mamífers. Ja que hi ha escassa informació sobre com afecta l’exposició crònica a les poblacions naturals d’insectívors, les dades conjuntes dels biomarcadors d’efecte obtingudes serveixen com valors de referència per a l’espècie i poden contribuir a estimar els efectes tòxics sobre els organismes. Es van detectar disminucions en la massa corporal i l'activitat de GST, i increments de massa i patologies atribuïbles a la contaminació a fetge i ronyó i freqüència de micronuclis en les musaranyes de les zones contaminades. Dels dos factors biòtics estudiats, l'edat va ser el més important ja que 10 dels elements, amb especial rellevància en el cas del Cd, van presentar patrons d’acumulació diferencials entre joves i adults. Per contra, mascles i femelles de musaranya comuna només van presentar petites diferències en l'acumulació de Pb, Hg, Ni, Mo, Mn, Co i Fe. Com amb els marcadors d’exposició, la rellevància de edat en els biomarcadors d’efecte va ser també major que la del sexe per explicar la variabilitat observada. L’ús de diversos biomarcadors d’exposició d’efecte permeten d’una banda obtenir una millor idea del conjunt d'efectes tòxics de la contaminació sobre el normal desenvolupament dels sistemes biològics, així com indiquen la idoneïtat de la musaranya comuna com a bioindicador de contaminació ambiental especialment per l’avaluació de risc ambiental a zones protegides i per les poblacions humanes. / In this report, a quantification of biomarkers of exposition (accumulation of Pb, Hg, Cd, Tl, Fe, Mg, Zn, Cu, Mn, Mo, Co, Ni, Cr, Sr, Ba and B in soft and hard tissues) and effect (morfometry, haematology, enzymatic activity, genotoxicity and histopathology) in a total of 243 specimens of the greater white-toothed shrew, Crocidura russula (Hermann, 1780) was found. In the present study, the age- and sex-dependent variations were also considered in order to explain the variability due to these important biotic factors. The study sites were 4 polluted sites and 4 reference sites selected both for their environmental relevance (6 out the 8 sites have granted partial or total protection status) and for the interest for the society: the landfill of Garraf, the bigger dump site in the Iberian Peninsula; the abandoned mine of Aljustrel in the Portuguese part of the Iberian Pyrite Belt (IPB); the National Park of Doñana affected by the wastes of the mine of Aznalcóllar, sited in the Spanish part of the IPB; and the Ebro Delta disturbed during decades by several human activities including hunting, industries and domestic wastes. A total of 138 shrews were captured for ecotoxicological studies in 3 polluted sites (Garraf, Aljustrel, and Doñana) and 105 specimens were captured for other ecological studies and stored in a zoological collection (Ebro Delta). Especially in the polluted sites studied, there were marked differences between the bioaccumulation patterns of essential and non-essential elements due to differences in the bioavailability, toxicity, and transfer and bioaccumulation throughout the food chains between the two groups of elements. The highest increases in the tissues of shrews from the polluted sites were on non-essential heavy metals (Pb, Cd, Hg, Tl, and Ni), without metabolic regulation of tissular levels in mammals that ends in high burdens in soft and hard tissues when bioavailability increase in the environment. Among elements quantified, only Pb, Hg, Cd, and, probably Tl, Ni, B, Ba and Sr, were accumulated till levels that may produce toxic effects in mammals. The scarce information of the effects of chronic exposure in natural populations of insectivores render more relevant the use of a battery of biomarkers of effect, that serve as reference values for the species and as assessment of toxic effects in organism. Decreases of body mass and GST activity and increases of mass and pathologies attributable to pollution in liver and kidneys were detected in shrews from the polluted sites. Among biotic factors, age was important because 10 of the elements quantified, with special remark on Cd, showed differential bioaccumulation patterns in juveniles and adults. In contrast, only slight differences in bioaccumulation of Pb, Hg, Ni, Mo, Mn, Co, and Fe were found between males and females. The same pattern of importance of age and sex as in the biomarker of exposure was found in the biomarkers of effect. The use of several biomarkers of exposure and effect provide information of the whole toxic effects of pollution in the normal function of biological systems and point out C. russula as a suitable bioindicator of environmental pollution, specially to evaluate environmental risk both in protected sites and human populations.

El planteamiento inicial de esta tesis fue el de valorar la capacidad de imitación en grandes simios, uno de los procesos de aprendizaje social que más controversia ha generado en la literatura sobre el aprendizaje animal y sus capacidades cognitivas. Durante el transcurso de la investigación surgió una segunda línea de trabajo centrada en el empleo de las interacciones positivas con humanos como una herramienta para mejorar el bienestar de los animales cautivos. La investigación sobre imitación, se desarrolló con dos especies de grandes simios. Inicialmente se trabajó en el centro de rescate de primates, Rainfer (Madrid) con una hembra de chimpancé (Estudio 1). A continuación, y tras las adaptaciones pertinentes, se replicó en el Parque Zoológico de Barcelona con dos hembras de gorila de costa (Estudio 2). Durante esta fase surgió la posibilidad de iniciar una investigación paralela para valorar las repercusiones que un estudio de este tipo podía tener sobre el bienestar de los individuos (Estudio 3). Los resultados de los Estudios 1 y 2 ponen de manifiesto una destacable capacidad imitativa por parte de los sujetos de estudio. Tanto el sujeto de la especie Pan troglodytes schweinfurthi como los dos individuos de la especie Gorilla gorilla gorilla imitaron correctamente un marcado número de acciones gestuales y acciones con objetos, superando los éxitos registrados en otros estudios anteriores. Además, la tercera investigación incluida en esta tesis, evidencia que la interacción positiva con los humanos, mediante la terapia “entreno/juego”, puede ser una alternativa de enriquecimiento sencilla y económica, así como una herramienta efectiva para mejorar el bienestar de los primates en cautividad y facilitar su manejo. Tal como pudo comprobarse durante el tercer estudio, las sesiones cortas y puntuales de juego entre humanos y grandes simios incrementan la calidad de vida de los individuos mantenidos en cautividad y potencian las relaciones sociales y la aparición de juego entre los integrantes del grupo de gorilas. / This study demonstrates that research on great apes, animal welfare and enrichment in captivity can become three aspects closely related. In order to evaluate the imitative abilities of 1 chimpanzee and 2 western lowland gorillas we used a battery of 52 actions classified in 4 categories (gestures, object, object-object and object-subject). The imitations made by these subjects were far better than any other individual in the literature. On the other hand, this research studied the effects of applying a combination of training sesions with relatively unstructured playing sessions on group of lowland gorillas. Regarding the second study, the results showed positive changes in the gorillas' behaviour: stereotypies, interactions with the public, aggression between subjects and inactivity were all reduced, while affiliative behaviour and individual and social play-related behaviour increased. which would seem to indicate that training/playing can be used to create a more relaxed atmosphere, reducing social tension and improving the well-being of all the subjects involved in any primate´s investigation.

The eastern mosquitofish (Gambusia holbrooki) is one of the most widely distributed and invasive inland fish. It is known that it has not been established in northern Europe or upstream of rivers, where the temperature is too low for survival and reproduction. This thesis examines how temperature affects the competitive ability and life history traits of mosquitofish. We sampled mosquitofish along latitudinal gradients and along rivers and we found that mosquitofish in more favorable environments (i.e. low latitudes and downstream river reaches) had a higher reproductive effort and lower body condition but these patterns of variation were weak and dependent on fish age. We also carried out an experiment which showed that as the temperature rises mosquitofish increases its competitive ability for resources and its aggressive behavior towards Aphanius iberus, an endangered Iberian endemism. Our results imply that climate change will favor the invasive success of mosquitofish and will increase its impact on native fish / La gambúsia (Gambusia holbrooki) és un dels peixos continentals més àmpliament distribuït i més invasors. Se sap que no s’ha pogut establir al nord d’Europa ni a trams alts de rius, on la temperatura és massa baixa per a la supervivència i la reproducció. Aquesta tesi analitza com afecta la temperatura a la capacitat competitiva i a les característiques del cicle vital de la gambúsia. Es van mostrejar gradients latitudinals i al llarg de rius i es va trobar que la gambúsia que vivia a ambients més favorables (és a dir, latituds menors i zones baixes dels rius), presentava un major esforç reproductiu i una menor condició corporal però que aquests patrons de variació eren febles i depenien de l'edat dels peixos. També es va portar a terme un experiment en què es va demostrar que a mesura que puja la temperatura la gambúsia incrementa la seva capacitat de competència pels recursos i el comportament agressiu contra el fartet (Aphanius iberus), endemisme ibèric en perill d'extinció. Els nostres resultats impliquen que el canvi climàtic afavorirà l'èxit invasor de la gambúsia i augmentarà el seu impacte en els peixos natius

Sex allocation (SA) refers to the proportion of resources allocated to male and female reproduction; relatedly, sex ratio (SR) refers to the numbers of each sex that are produced. Hence, their scientific study deals with the variation in the quantity and quality of males and females and its ultimate and proximate causes. Adaptive theories make predictions about sex allocation under the assumption that facultative adjustment will be favoured when the fitness benefits compensate the fitness costs. However, although SA theory is one of the great successes of evolutionary biology and its mechanisms have been successfully applied to a number of taxa, they are still poorly understood in vertebrates. This thesis investigated causes of variation in avian sex allocation, with a focus on the role of sexual size dimorphism (SSD) and other features of avian life-history, associated with differences in the reproductive value of sons and daughters. In the first section, we present the results of tests of a sex ratio population model which involve species with sexual size dimorphism, in which it is possible to estimate the strength of selection for adjustments. Both species-level and phylogenetically controlled analyses showed that, across bird species, hatching and fledging sex ratios are influenced by the degree of SSD. Dimorphic species show a higher proportion of the smaller sex, but the effect is particularly strong in species with female-biased SSD. Parents adjust offspring sex ratio by differential production, possibly the less costly mechanism, rather than by sex-specific mortality. The degree of SSD is also correlated with offspring sex-biased vulnerability (expressed as a greater mortality and mass reduction of the larger sex). The survival and viability costs involved in achieving a larger body size support the size-dependent explanations of vulnerability. However, they should be combined with sex-dependent explanations, as growing large is mainly disadvantageous when coupled with the male-phenotype. Other life-history characteristics of the species, however, appear as potential modifiers of the relationship between SR and SSD. This reflects the composite matrix of factors that are acting on avian sex ratio evolution and questions the validity of “equal-investment” theories in this context. In the second section, the common tern Sterna hirundo was used as model species to investigate, via observational and experimental studies, the factors that could shape sex allocation in this slightly dimorphic species. In search for indications of different reproductive value/costs of each sex and possible differential parental allocation, we describe the sexual dimorphism in phenotype and developmental strategies of the offspring, related to environmental and parental traits. The results underline (1) the potential of parents to affect the development of their offspring by differential supply of particularly important resources, such as carotenoids; and (2) the influence of parental reproductive quality on the offspring sexual differences, even if these are slight. Furthermore, we performed a comprehensive study with complete information over a long period (7 years), to examine sex ratio and sex-specific mortality in common terns. Population patterns revealed no deviations from parity, but environmental factors and parental condition and quality affected sex ratio adjustment at individual level. Overall, this thesis highlights the intricate relationships between facultative sex ratios and individual and life-history traits which may drive the evolution of sex allocation in birds. / La asignación por sexo (SA) se refiere a la proporción de recursos asignados a la reproducción masculina y femenina. Un concepto relacionado es la razón de sexos (SR), el número relativo de machos y hembras. Su estudio científico trata de la variación en cantidad y calidad de cada sexo y de sus causas últimas y próximas. Las teorías adaptativas hacen predicciones bajo el supuesto de que el ajuste facultativo se ve favorecido cuando los beneficios en eficacia biológica compensan los costes. Empero, sus mecanismos son aún poco conocidos en vertebrados. En esta tesis se investigaron las causas de variación en la SA en aves, con especial énfasis en el papel del dimorfismo sexual en tamaño (SSD) y de otras características de estrategia vital. La primera sección presenta los resultados de un modelo de SR a nivel poblacional que incluye especies con distintos grados de SSD, en las que es posible estimar la fuerza de la selección para los ajustes. Los análisis comparativos mostraron que el SSD influye en los patrones de SR y vulnerabilidad diferencial de la descendencia. Otras características biológicas de las especies, sin embargo, parecen modificar estas relaciones. Una compleja matriz de factores parece actuar sobre el SR en aves, cuestionando la validez de las teorías de “inversión igualitaria" en este contexto. La segunda sección presenta estudios observacionales y experimentales de los factores que afectan a la asignación por sexo en el charrán común (Sterna hirundo). Se analizó el dimorfismo sexual en el fenotipo y estrategias de desarrollo de los pollos en relación a distintos factores. Los resultados subrayan (1) el potencial parental para influir en el desarrollo de la descendencia, a través del suministro diferencial de recursos, y (2) la influencia de la calidad parental en las diferencias sexuales, aunque pequeñas, de la descendencia. Además, se realizó un estudio del SR durante un largo período (7 años). Los patrones poblacionales de mortalidad y SR no revelaron desviaciones de la paridad, pero factores ambientales y de condición y calidad parental influyeron en el ajuste a nivel individual. Esta tesis pone de relieve las complejas relaciones entre la razón de sexos facultativa y los rasgos individuales y de estrategia vital que conducen a la evolución de la SA en aves.

The target species of this thesis, the European mink (Mustela lutreola) and the American mink (Neovison vison), are considered respectively as one of the most threatened carnivores and as one of the worst invaders in Europe. Both species colonized the Iberian Peninsula very recently: the European mink entered from France in the 1950s and colonized the rivers basins of the Northeastern Spain, and the American mink was introduced in the 1950s through fur farming and is currently found in six different populations throughout the Northern half of the Peninsula. In the Iberian Peninsula, most analyses focused on conservation and management of the European and the American mink in the last two decades are at local-scale, using data collected over small areas inside their range of distribution. In this thesis, we explored the two mink species interaction, occupancy, abundance and potential distribution over their entire range of distribution in the Iberian Peninsula, in order to provide sound basis to guide conservation and management actions. We used data from live-trapping surveys conducted between 2000 and 2011 as part of the European mink conservation plan and the American mink control plan. Moreover, we collected presence data of the historical distribution of the European mink all over Europe and presence data of the American mink in the native (North America) and the invaded (Europe) ranges. We applied three different statistical techniques to analyze the data: Occupancy Models, N-mixture Models and Species Distribution Models. We provided evidences of a large-scale competitive exclusion of the native species by the invasive mink, and we found a negative trend in the abundance of the critically endangered mink over the last fifteen years. We produced a spatial prediction of the potential expansion of the American mink in the Iberian Peninsula, demonstrating that the species could colonize river basins of the entire Peninsula. Finally, we analyzed the overlap of the two mink species’ potential distribution in the Iberian Peninsula, in order to identify priority conservation areas for the European mink. Overall, from our analysis emerged that a better coordination between local policies as well as a greater constancy in monitoring and controlling the American mink population is imperative to improve the conservation strategy of the European mink in Spain. / Las especies objeto de la presente tesis, el visón europeo (Mustela lutreola) y el visón americano (Neovison vison) son respectivamente uno de los carnívoros más amenazados y una de las peores especies invasoras de Europa Ambas especies han colonizado la Península Ibérica muy recientemente: el visón europeo ha entrado desde Francia en los años 1950s y ha colonizado algunas cuenca fluviales en el noreste de España, y el visón americano ha sido introducido en los 1950s a través de las granjas peleteras, y se encuentra ahora distribuido en seis núcleos poblacionales en el nord de la Península. La mayoría de los análisis sobre la conservación y la gestión del visón europeo y del visón americano llevados al cabo en las últimas dos décadas, se ha realizado a escala local usando datos recogidos en pequeñas áreas. En la presente tesis se ha explorado la interacción, la ocupación, la abundancia y la distribución potencial de las dos especies de visones en la totalidad de su área de distribución en la Península Ibérica, con el objetivo de proporcionar sólidas bases para orientar las acciones de conservación y gestión. Se han utilizado datos de capturas en vivo recogidos entre el 2000 y el 2001, como parte del plan de conservación del visón europeo y el plan de control del visón americano en la Península Ibérica. Además, se han utilizados datos sobre la presencia histórica del visón europeo en toda Europa y datos de presencia del visón americano en su área original de distribución (Norte América) y en el área invadida (Europa). Se han aplicado tres diferentes técnicas estadísticas para el análisis de los datos: Modelos de Ocupación, Modelos N-mixture y Modelos de Distribución de Especies. Se han proporcionados pruebas a amplia escala, de la exclusión competitiva del visón europeo de parte del visón americano, y se ha observado una tendencia negativa en la abundancia de la especie en peligro crítico de extinción en los últimos 15 años. Se ha producido una predicción de la expansión potencial del visón americano en la Península Ibérica, demostrando que la especie puede colonizar las cuencas fluviales de la entera Península. En general del presente análisis emerge que son necesarias una mejor coordinación entre las políticas locales y una mayor constancia en la monitorización y el control del vison americano para mejorar la estrategia de conservación del visón europeo en España

Tesi realitzada a l'Institut de Biologia Evolutiva (CSIC-UPF) / The arid areas of North Africa and Arabia cover a surface of more than 13 million square kilometers and are characterized by their extreme temperatures, diversity of desert habitats and well-adapted flora and fauna. The study of the evolution of their biota sheds light on the diversification processes in some of the world’s harshest environments and contributes to our knowledge on large-scale biogeographic patterns and processes. The general aim of this dissertation is to investigate the evolution of the biota of the arid areas of North Africa and Arabia, through the study of the systematics and biogeography of two representative reptile groups, Stenodactylus and Ptyodactylus. The geckos of these two genera are among the most common faunal elements of the arid North African and Arabian environments, yet they are very distinct with regard to their morphology, ecology and patterns of species divergence. On the one hand, the naked toe Stenodactylus species are relatively divergent morphologically and have conquered different arid and hyper-arid habitats across plains or dunes. On the other hand, Ptyodactylus geckos are fairly conserved morphologically across their entire range and are very well adapted to a common type of structural habitat characterized by the rocky substrate. The results presented herein provide a thorough insight into their phylogenetic relationships, review and update their taxonomy, explore their historical biogeography and, altogether, assemble a broader image of diversity patterns within a temporal framework for the arid North Africa and Arabia. Highlighting the most relevant results, in this dissertation an unprecedentedly large set of samples from North Africa, the Sahel and Arabia was compiled for the two selected groups of study: 249 samples of Stenodactylus from 150 localities and 382 samples of Ptyodactylus from 221 localities. Regarding molecular data, 770 DNA sequences of five different markers were newly produced for the former genus, and 1443 of six different markers for the latter. Stenodactylus originated in Arabia in the Late Oligocene. The Arabian Clade B, including five species, and the mainly African Clade C, with the same number of species, split approximately 22 Ma ago, coinciding with the opening of the Red Sea. Diversification within several clades in the phylogeny occurred during the Late Miocene, a time when a general increase in aridification initiated. Based on mitochondrial and nuclear molecular data, as well as morphological characters, a new species of Stenodactylus is described. Stenodactylus sharqiyahensis sp. nov. is shown to be endemic to the sand desert of Al Sharqiyah, in northeastern Oman. Nomenclatural actions undertaken for the stability of the nomina of North African species of Stenodactylus include the designation of a lectotype for the nomen Stenodactylus guttatus which places it under the synonymy of P. hasselquistii, ensuring continuity of the prevailing usage of S. petrii, and the application to the International Commission of Zoological Nomenclature to accept a new name-bearing type for S. sthenodactylus, in order to maintain its prevailing usage. Regarding Ptyodactylus, its broad sampling includes numerous new records for some of the species, and especially for the P. hasselquistii species complex, an important extension of its known distribution range both in northeastern Africa and Arabia. All the formerly known and newly-delimited species are shown to be mostly allopatric, except some known cases where activity patterns are adjusted to avoid competition. This is hypothesized to relate to their preference for the same type of structural habitat, conditioning their apparently conserved morphology. The onset of the diversification in the genus Ptyodactylus is estimated to have taken place in the Late Oligocene. In the northeastern African and Arabian clades A, B and C, diversification started during the Late Miocene, approximately 9.5-12 Ma ago, posterior to that in the western African P. togoensis and P. oudrii. The molecular data show that many species have high levels of genetic variability. Ptyodactylus ragazzii presents two clades in the phylogeny, from East and West Africa respectively, and given that topological tests reject their sister relationship, the available name P. togoensis is assigned to the West African populations. Multilocus coalescence-based analyses with the use of GMYC and BPP methodologies result in the delimitation of 17 putative species in the P. hasselquistii species complex. These species are grouped in two major clades: Clade A, with nine species, is distributed across northeastern Africa and a large part of north, central and eastern Arabian Peninsula, and Clade B, with eight species, is restricted to southern Arabia. / Les zones àrides del Nord d'Àfrica i d'Aràbia s'estenen per diversos milions de kilòmetres quadrats i l'estudi en aquesta àrea dels patrons de biodiversitat a gran escala, es veu condicionat de forma essencial per la dificultat d'obtenir un mostreig complet, per l'escassa informació de la seva biota i per la complexitat dels processos que han generat la biodiversitat actualment existent. En el marc limitat d'una tesi doctoral, i considerant les premisses anteriorment descrites, s'han seleccionat dos gèneres de rèptils àmpliament distribuïts en aquestes àrees, el gènere Stenodactylus i el Ptyodactylus. Ambdós gèneres formen part dels elements més comuns de la fauna del Nord d'Àfrica i d'Aràbia, malgrat presentar importants diferències pel que fa a la seva morfologia, ecologia i patrons de divergència. Per un costat, les espècies dels dragons del gènere Stenodactylus són relativament divergents entre elles respecte a la morfologia, i han conquistat diferents ambients àrids i hiperàrids, incloent-hi alguns dels entorns més hostils dels deserts. Per altra banda, els dragons del gènere Ptyodactylus són més aviat conservats pel que fa a la morfologia, sempre presentant els característics coixinets triangulars dividits en múltiples làmines en les seves potes, i estan ben adaptats als substrats rocosos, que constitueixen el seu hàbitat estructural. Els resultats aquí presentats aporten un coneixement profund en les seves relacions filogenètiques, es revisa i s'actualitza la seva taxonomia, s'explora la seva biogeografia històrica, i en conjunt, es dona una imatge general dels patrons de diversitat dins d'un marc temporal pels ambients àrids del Nord d'Àfrica i d'Aràbia.