CoordenaÃÃo de AperfeiÃoamento de Pessoal de NÃvel Superior / O feijÃo-de-corda tem grande importÃncia socioeconÃmica no Nordeste brasileiro. Entretanto, sua produÃÃo à baixa devido a diversos fatores biÃticos, como, por exemplo, o vÃrus do mosaico severo do caupà (CPSMV, gÃnero Comovirus), que apresenta grande destaque, por causar a virose que mais acomete essa cultura no paÃs. No estudo da interaÃÃo planta-vÃrus, diversos trabalhos mostram que o tratamento de sementes com o etil metanosulfonato (EMS, mutagÃnico quÃmico) resulta no fenÃtipo de resistÃncia em plantas que, anteriormente, apresentavam susceptibilidade à infecÃÃo por vÃrus do gÃnero Potyvirus. Por essa razÃo, o presente estudo teve como objetivo investigar as respostas de defesa bioquÃmicas e fisiolÃgicas das plantas de feijÃo-de-corda do genÃtipo (CE-31) susceptÃvel ao CPSMV (CPI) a partir de sementes tratadas com EMS (0,04% v/v), e avaliar se as plantas mutagenizadas (MCPI), produzidas a partir dessas sementes se tornaram resistentes ao CPSMV. Duas diferentes abordagens foram utilizadas neste trabalho: 1) anÃlises bioquÃmicas (enzimas antioxidantes e conteÃdo de H2O2, PR-proteÃnas e compostos secundÃrios) e fisiolÃgicas (parÃmetros fotossintÃticos e teor de clorofila); 2) abordagem proteÃmica quantitativa (LC-ESI-MS/MS), livre de marcaÃÃo, para identificar proteÃnas responsivas à infecÃÃo viral. Os resultados obtidos demonstram que as plantas MCPI sÃo capazes de induzir respostas bioquÃmicas (aumento de H2O2, induÃÃo de PR-proteÃnas e aumento no conteÃdo de compostos secundÃrios) e alteraÃÃes nos parÃmetros fisiolÃgicos (alta taxa fotossintÃtica e teor de clorofila) que, aparentemente, tÃm relaÃÃo com o fenÃtipo de resistÃncia das plantas mutagenizadas ao CPSMV. Na anÃlise proteÃmica, 99 proteÃnas foram identificadas como sendo diferenciais, das quais 68 aumentaram e 31 diminuÃram em abundÃncia nas plantas MCPI em relaÃÃo as plantas CPI. A anÃlise proteÃmica, mostrou diversas vias metabÃlicas (Metabolismo Redox, Energia e Metabolismo, FotossÃntese, Metabolismo de RNA e Defesa) envolvidas nas respostas de defesa das plantas MCPI frente a infecÃÃo viral. O tratamento das sementes com o EMS, resultou em plantas de feijÃo-de-corda com fenÃtipo de resistÃncia capazes de acionar mecanismos de defesa para impedir a infeÃÃo viral / Cowpea is an important crop that makes major nutritional contributions as a source of proteins and carbohydrates in the diet of many people worldwide. However, its production is impaired due to various stresses including those of biotic origins. Cowpea Severe Mosaic Virus (CPSMV) infects cowpeas leading to severe symptoms and low productivity. Several studies of plant-virus interaction show that seed treatment with Ethyl methanesulfonate (EMS, chemical mutagen), results in a resistant phenotype in plants, which was previously susceptibility, to virus infection of the Potyvirus genus. The aim of this study was to investigate some physiological and biochemical parameters of a susceptible cowpea cultivar (CPI) (CE-31, sin. Pitiuba) in comparison with its derived resistant mutagenized (MCPI), both infected with CPSMV. MCPI plantlets were obtained after treatment of CE-31 seeds with 0.04% EMS. Two different approaches were used in this study: 1) biochemical (antioxidant enzymes and H2O2 content, PR-proteins and secondary metabolites) and physiological analysis (photosynthetic parameters and chlorophyll content); and 2) Label free quantitative proteomic approach (LC-ESI-MS / MS) to identify proteins responsive to viral infection. Our results showed that MCPI had no symptoms of CPSMV infection and biochemical (high H2O2, PR-proteins and secondary compounds [phenolic and lignin]) and physiological responses (High photosynthesis index and chlorophyll content) is activated in MCPI plantlets after CPSMV inoculation. With regard to proteomic analysis, 99 proteins were differentially represented, where these 68 are up- and 31 down represented in MCPI compared to CPI. Regardless whether to CPI (susceptible) or MCPI (mutagenized resistant) plantlets, CPSMV induce changes in proteome profile that involve several biological process (energy and metabolism, photosynthesis, response to stress, oxidative burst, and scavenging). Moreover, these results suggest that the CPSMV responsive proteins in the MCPI represent a complex network involving in resistant mechanisms to CPSMV. Treatment of the susceptible CE-31 genotype seeds with the mutagenic agent EMS induced genomic alterations generating a cowpea mutagenized resistant to CPSMV by apparently inducing classical biochemical and physiological responses against infection

CoordenaÃÃo de AperfeiÃoamento de NÃvel Superior / O melÃo tem grande importÃncia para a economia brasileira, sendo sua produÃÃo exportada principalmente para os paÃses da UniÃo EuropÃia. Assim, à fundamental o controle de doenÃas pÃs-colheita deste fruto. O Fusarium pallidoroseum à um importante fitopatÃgeno que provoca podridÃes no melÃo. Esta doenÃa representa um obstÃculo sÃrio em sua comercializaÃÃo. Este trabalho avaliou os efeitos do BTH, um anÃlogo estrutural e funcional do Ãcido salicÃlico, nas respostas bioquÃmicas da defesa do melÃo desafiado com o F. pallidoroseum e do meloeiro nÃo desafiado. Doze horas depois de colhidos, os melÃes foram mergulhados em soluÃÃes de BTH (concentraÃÃes de 0,5, 1,0, e 2,0 mM de ingrediente ativo) e, depois 60 horas, foram inoculados com o fungo. Amostras dos frutos (2 cm diÃmetro x 1 cm de profundidade), prÃximos ao local de infecÃÃo, foram retiradas em 3, 7 e 10 dias apÃs inoculaÃÃo, pesadas e armazenadas à -84 ÂC atà serem utilizadas. Plantas do melÃo de 8 dias foram borrifadas com 300 ÂL de BTH nas concentraÃÃes de 0,3, 0,5, e 1,0 mM. As folhas secundÃrias foram colhidas em 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, e 14 dias apÃs tratamento. AlÃm da avaliaÃÃo do sintoma nos frutos, extratos totais do fruto e das folhas secundÃrias foram preparados com tampÃo acetato 50 mM, pH 5.2, contendo 150 mM de NaCl, e os Ãndices de proteÃna e as atividades enzimÃticas da peroxidase (POX), da fenilalanina amÃnia liase (PAL), da β-1,3-glucanase (GLU), da peroxidase do ascorbato (APX) e da superoxide dismutase (SOD) foram medidos. Observou-se que BTH nÃo reduziu significativamente a incidÃncia e a severidade da podridÃo causada pelo patÃgeno. Nem 2 mM de BTH modificou significativamente as atividades de enzimas relacionadas a defesa do fruto. Ao contrÃrio, nas plantas do melÃo, BTH aumentou as atividades da POX, GLU e da SOD, mas nÃo modificou a PAL e APX foi inibida. Estes resultados sugerem que BTH nÃo trabalhou como um indutor de defesas bioquÃmicas no melÃo, mas induziu respostas de defesa nas plantas. ConseqÃentemente, sugere-se que BTH poderia ser usado como uma estratÃgia tecnolÃgica para a proteÃÃo de frutas do melÃo contra a podridÃo causada pelo F. pallidoroseum atravÃs da induÃÃo das respostas bioquÃmicas de defesa da prÃpria planta, que, provavelmente, estarà transferindo estas caracterÃsticas aos frutos. Entretanto, esta hipÃtese que està sendo proposta necessita ser avaliada. / Melon fruit constitutes one of the main segments of the Brazilian economy. Its production is exported particularly to countries in the European Union. Thus it is fundamental the control of postharvest diseases of melon. Fusarium pallidoroseum is an important phytopathogen which provokes rot in melon fruits. This disease represents a serious obstacle in its commercialization as a foreign commodity. In this present work the effects of BTH, a structural and functional analogue of salicylic acid, on the biochemical defense responses of melon fruits challenged with F. pallidoroseum and of unchallenged melon plants were assessed. Twelve hours after harvesting melon fruits were immersed in BTH (0.5, 1.0, and 2.0 mM concentrations of active ingredient) and 60 hours later inoculated with the fungus. Fruit cuts (2 cm diameter x 1 cm deep), close to the inoculation sites, were excised at 3, 7, and 10 days after fungal inoculation, weighed and kept at -84 ○C until used. Eight day-old melon plants were sprayed with 300 ÂL BTH at 0.3, 0.5, and 1.0 mM concentrations. Secondary leaves were harvested at 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, and 14 hours after sprayings. Besides to symptom evaluation in melon fruits, crude extracts from the fruit cuts and leaves were prepared with 50 mM acetate buffer, pH 5.2, containing 150 mM NaCl, and the protein contents and enzymatic activities of peroxidase (POX), phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL), β-1,3-glucanase (GLU), ascorbate peroxidase (APX), and superoxide dismutase (SOD) were measured. It was observed that BTH did not reduce significantly the incidence and severity of the rot caused by the pathogen. Neither 2 mM BTH significantly modify the activities of defense-related enzymes in melon fruits. Contrary, in the melon plants, BTH increased the activities of POX, GLU, and SOD, but did not modify PAL and further inhibited APX. These results suggest that BTH did not work as an inductor of biochemical defenses in melon fruits, but it induced defense responses in the melon plants. Therefore it is suggested that BTH could be used as a technological strategy for protection of melon fruits from the rot caused by F. pallidoroseum by means of induction of biochemical defense responses of the melon plant itself which will likely be transferring these traits to its fruits. However, this hypothesis that is being proposed needs to be assessed.

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento CientÃfico e TecnolÃgico / CoordenaÃÃo de AperfeiÃoamento de Pessoal de NÃvel Superior / A soja (Glycine max) à uma espÃcie de grande valor econÃmico para o Brasil dada a multiplicidade de uso de seus grÃos na alimentaÃÃo animal e na indÃstria. Embora o Brasil seja o segundo maior produtor mundial dos grÃos, as perdas na produtividade em campo ainda sÃo considerÃveis, principalmente Ãquelas causadas por nematÃides do gÃnero Meloidogyne e por fungos fitopatogÃnicos. Mesmo com a existÃncia de alternativas quÃmicas para o controle dessas espÃcies, bem como com a existÃncia de genÃtipos resistentes, as perdas agrÃcolas ainda sÃo considerÃveis, mostrando que a busca por mecanismos naturais de resistÃncia ambientalmente seguros sÃo prÃticas necessÃrias para o controle de pragas e patÃgenos e para a melhoria na produtividade. Este trabalho objetivou caracterizar bioquÃmica e funcionalmente duas toxinas protÃicas isoladas de sementes de soja, bem como avaliar os seus papÃis na defesa contra patÃgenos de importÃncia agronÃmica para essa espÃcie. Foi mostrado experimentalmente que SYTX-2 (28 kDa) à uma proteÃna Ãcida encontrada em duas isoformas (27,3 e 27,2 kDa) de pIâs 5,11 e 5,24, as quais apresentam a mesma extremidade NH2-Terminal (KTISSEDSPFFNCREK). A anÃlise por dicroÃsmo circular mostrou que a SYTX-2 apresenta um espectro tÃpico de proteÃnas que apresentam α-hÃlice e folhas-β, sendo essa estrutura semelhante Ãquela jà descrita para a SBTX. Esses padrÃes sÃo gradualmente perdidos quando a proteÃna à aquecida de 25 a 95 ÂC. Os espectros de emissÃo em 280 e 295 nm (323 e 313 nm, mÃximo) mostraram padrÃes tÃpicos de resÃduos de triptofano presentes no interior da estrutura terciÃria. SYTX-2 à uma hemilectina capaz de aglutinar indiretamente eritrÃcitos de coelho em presenÃa de anticorpos policlonais anti-SYTX-2, sendo essa atividade inibida por D-manose. AlÃm disso, in vitro, SYTX-2 apresentou atividade ribonucleÃsica, cuja atividade especÃfica (1821,42  3,34 UA. h-1 mgP) foi semelhante Ãquela descrita para a ribonuclease de raÃzes de V. unguiculata. Foi observado que SYTX-2 està presente na casca das sementes em teores menores do que os observados para os cotilÃdones, alÃm de se distribuir tambÃm em raÃzes, caules e folhas. As raÃzes jovens apresentam os maiores teores de SYTX-2 (62,62  10,10 Âg de SYTX-2/g de tecido) sendo essa expressÃo triplicada em tecidos adultos (195,12  35,54 Âg/g de tecido). Em pH 5,0 essa proteÃna à exsudada das sementes ao longo de 24 h, sendo o pico de exsudaÃÃo mostrado 18 h apÃs o contato com o tampÃo (6,16  0,08 ÂgP de SYTX-2/semente ). Tal como descrito para muitas proteÃnas de defesa, SYTX-2 foi induzida 6 h apÃs a injÃria mecÃnica de folhas (de 6,7 para 10,46 Âg de SYTX-2/ g de tecido), retornando aos valores normais 24 h apÃs a lesÃo. In vitro SYTX-2 apresentou uma potente atividade nematicida contra M. incognita RaÃa 4, induzindo a mortalidade de 85% dos J2 6h apÃs incubaÃÃo com a proteÃna, e de 100% apÃs 24 h. Essa toxina tambÃm foi capaz de inibir (20%) o crescimento de C. albicans, embora nÃo tenha sido efetiva em inibir a germinaÃÃo de esporos de fungos fitopatogÃnicos (R. solani, Phomopsis sp. e F. solani f.sp glycines). Este trabalho tambÃm descreve o isolamento, a clonagem e a caracterizaÃÃo do cDNA da subunidade de 27 kDa da SBTX (44 kDa). O cDNA foi isolado a partir de um pool de RNA extraÃdo de sementes 15, 25 e 35 dias apÃs a antese, utilizando iniciadores desenhados a partir do NH2-terminal das duas subunidades da proteÃna (27 e 17 kDa). EvidÃncias experimentais sugerem fortemente que as duas subunidades da proteÃna sÃo codificadas por genes diferentes. A subunidade de 27 kDa da SBTX apresenta um cDNA de 815 pb, composto por uma ORF de 660 nucleotÃdeos, codificante para uma proteÃna com 219 resÃduos de aminoÃcidos. A sequÃncia do cDNA da SBTX foi detectada em dois cromossomos (04 e 06) e a busca por ESTâs para essa proteÃna, mostrou que alÃm de ser expressa em todo o vegetal, nÃveis elevados de transcritos sÃo observados apÃs a infecÃÃo contra P. sojae e F. solani f. sp. glycines, evidenciando seu importante papel na defesa contra fungos fitopatogÃnicos. A sequÃncia deduzida de aminoÃcidos da subunidade de 27 kDa apresenta um peptÃdeo sinal de 26 resÃduos de aminoÃcidos, clivado para a produÃÃo da proteÃna madura, que apresenta, portanto, massa molecular de 21,7 kDa e pI 9,3, sendo uma proteÃna bÃsica. Na sequÃncia de aminoÃcidos da subunidade de 27 kDa tambÃm foram identificados: um resÃduo de cisteÃna, envolvido na formaÃÃo de uma ponte dissulfeto com a subunidade de 17 kDa, 11 sÃtios de fosforilaÃÃo em Ser, Thr ou Tyr, 8 sÃtios de glicosilaÃÃo para GlcNAc e um sÃtio para adiÃÃo de oligossacarÃdeos tipo mucina (GalNAc). A toxina tambÃm apresenta sÃtios de clivagem para pepsina, tripsina e quimiotripsina que podem justificar a ausÃncia de toxicidade observada em camundongos apÃs administraÃÃo oral. SYTX-2 e SBTX foram mostradas atravÃs de uma caracterizaÃÃo estrutural ainda mais completa que as descritas por Sousa (2006) e Siebra (2004) e as informaÃÃes obtidas permitiram definir que essas proteÃnas sÃo parte importante da defesa da soja contra fungos fitopatogÃnicos e nematÃides. AlÃm de inÃditos e de extrema relevÃncia, todos esses dados darÃo subsÃdios para estudos posteriores que objetivem, para SYTX-2, determinar sua microestrutura protÃica e isolamento gÃnico e, para SBTX, realizaÃÃo de projetos futuros, visando o desenvolvimento de plantas transgÃnicas com uma maior resistÃncia a fungos / Soybean provides significant sources of fatty acids and proteins for human and animal nutrition and also has non-food uses. Conditions in almost all cultivated land are sub-optimal for plant growth as a result of the increasing incidence of diseases, even in developed agricultural systems. To meet these challenges, genes and proteins that control their resistance to a wide range of pathogens need to be identified and characterized to facilitate improvements in crop productivity. The main focus in this thesis has been to characterize (providing basic information about biochemical characteristics) and study the functional role of SYTX-2 (28 kDa) and SBTX (44 kDa), two toxic proteins isolated from soybean seeds, in plant defense against pathogens. The SYTX-2 was purified by a combination of ammonium sulphate fractionation and two chromatographic steps. Bidimensional electrophoresis of this protein revealed the presence of two spots (27.3 e 27.2 kDa), with isoeletric points values corresponding to 5.11 and 5.24, respectively, exhibiting the same N-terminal sequence (KTISSEDSPFFNCREK). SYTX-2 has also ribonuclease activity (1821.42  3.34 UA. h-1 mgP), similar to that described in Vigna unguiculata leaves. The CD spectrum of SYTX-2 presents an alpha-beta profile spectrum, similar to the structure described to SBTX. Regarding to the temperature exposure, monitored by CD, it was observed that the structure of SYTX-2 is vulnerable to the temperatures above 40 ÂC. The fluorescence spectra of Soyatoxin-2 marked a maximum emission of fluorescence at 323-333 nm and confirmed that the tertiary structure of this protein was correctly folded. SYTX-2 behaves as a hemilectin: it does not directly promote agglutination of red blood cells, but toxin-treated erythrocytes are readily agglutinated in the presence of anti-SYTX-2 antibodies. ELISA assays showed that SYTX-2 was exuded during seed imbibition, the maximum level of exuded toxin (6.16  0.08 Âg/seed) detected being at 18 h after the start of imbibition. The expression profiles of SYTX-2 in various soybean tissues were investigated with ELISA assay or Dot Blot analysis. The expression analysis suggested that SYTX-2 was clearly detected in seed coat, leaves, roots and also in stems. However, expression of SYTX-2 in roots is higher than that in leaves and stems. A strong induction of SYTX-2 expression was also observed in wounded leaves 6 h after treatment and it decreased thereafter. In vitro, antifungal activity of SYTX-2 was not detected against R. solani, Phomopsis sp. and F. solani f.sp glycines, but this protein inhibits C. albicans growth. Nematicidal effects of SYTX-2 were studied in vitro against Meloidogyne incognita nematode and the toxin (11Âg/nematode) showed a high nematicidal activity, with the mortality of 85%, after six hours contact and of 100%, after 24 h of incubation. This work also describes the isolation, sequencing and functional analysis of cDNA (815 pb) encoding 27 kDa subunit of soybean toxin (SBTX). CDNA was amplified using a forward primer designed based on the N-terminal sequence of the toxin in combination of primer AP. The genomic location of the 27 kDa SBTX subunit SBTX was preliminarily determined with the mapped soybean ESTs database (www.phytozome.net) at Gm04 and Gm06 chromosome of soybean and thus may have two copies per genome. The deduced protein sequence of 219 amino acids (MW of mature protein 21.7 kDa, pI 9.3) included an N-terminal signal peptide. ESTâs encoding 27 kDa subunit SBTX were present in cotyledons, leaves, and seedlings and the expression of 27 kDa subunit SBTX was also induced in tissues by P. sojae and F. solani f. sp. glycines infection and by abiotic stress. In addition to these blocks, the 27 kDa deduced protein sequence contains a putative Ser/Tyr/Thr phosphorylation and also contains eight potential N-linked glycosylation sites and a threonine/serine-rich region which is a potential site for attachment of O-linked carbohydrate. Potential sites for pepsin, trypsin and chymotrypsin hydrolysis were also detected. The results add a new dimension to toxins SBTX and SYTX functionalities and support the concept that these proteins act protecting soybean against pathogens

As plantas apresentam diferentes e complexos mecanismos de defesa, que atuam em conjunto, em respostas a estresses bióticos e abióticos, cuja natureza e intensidade de resposta variam com a idade, o grau de adaptação e a fenologia (OLIVEIRA, 2003). O objetivo principal da pesquisa consiste em: (i) identificar os ácidos clorogênicos nas folhas de Coffea arabica L., cultivar Obatã IAC 1669-20, Catuaí Vermelho IAC 99, e das populações em seleção H14945-46 e H20049, e (ii) quantificar as várias classes de ácidos clorogênicos, nos mesmos genótipos, durante a fase reprodutiva do cafeeiro (florescimento, frutochumbinho, expansão/granação e maturação). Os compostos fenólicos foram separados por meio da cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência (Shimadzu, modelo LC-20A) para as análises em CLAE-DAD. O perfil cromatográfico dos genótipos estudados não diferiram entre si. Durante as fases de frutificação houve variação nos teores de ácido clorogênico e dos fenóis totais, no qual apresentou menores valores na fase de granação. O genótipo H14954-46 resistente ao bicho-mineiro apresentou o ácido clorogênico referente ao pico 5, incomum aos outros genótipos estudados. As folhas infestadas por bichomineiro (Leucoptera coffeella) apresentaram menores concentrações de fenóis totais, bem como de alguns ácidos clorogênicos e flavanóides, já as folhas inoculadas por ferrugem (Hemileia vastatrix) apresentaram maiores concentração. Há evidências de que os ácidos clorogênicos participem do complexo mecanismo de defesa das plantas. / The plants present different and complex mechanisms of defense, that work together, in responses to biotic and abiotic stresses, whose nature and intensity of response varies with age, the degree of adaptation and phenology. The main objective from the research is: (i) detect the chlorogenic acids in the leaves of Coffea arabica L., cultivars Obatã IAC 1669-20 and Catuaí Vermelho IAC 99, and of the populations into selection H14945-46 and H20049, and (ii) quantify the several classes of chlorogenic acids, in the same coffee plants, during the fructification phases of the coffee tree (flowering, fruits at the beginning of growth , grain expansion/seed, grain maturation). The phenolic compounds have been apart through high performance liquid chromatography (Shimadzu , model LC -20A) for the analyses in CLAE DAD. The studied chromatography profile of the coffee plants has presented no difference between them. During the fructification phases there was variation at the content of chlorogenic acid and of the total phenols, in which has presented under age values at the phase as of grain expansion. The plants of H14954-46 resistant to the coffee leaf miner have presented the chlorogenic acid referring to pico 5, no common to the other coffee plants studied. The infested leaves by coffee leaf miner (Leucoptera coffeella) presented lower concentrations of total phenols, as well as, of some chlorogenic acids and flavanoids, unlike, the leaves inoculate by rust (Hemileia vastatrix) presented greater concentration. There is evidence that chlorogenic acids have involved in the complex defense mechanism of plants.

O feijão-comum (Phaseolus vulgaris) é atacado por uma gama de patógenos que afetam a produtividade das lavouras e a qualidade dos grãos. Dentre os patógenos de importância econômica para a cultura no Brasil, destaca-se o nematoide das galhas (Meloidogyne incognita). Embora haja relatos sobre a avaliação de cultivares na presença de M. incognita, as fontes de resistência tem se mostrado pouco efetivas. Por isso, pesquisas que possibilitem um melhor entendimento sobre a interação planta-nematoide são de extrema valia e devem nortear novas estratégias para o melhoramento do feijoeiro. Assim, no presente estudo, 18 cultivares de P. vulgaris foram avaliadas quanto à resistência a M. incognita raça 3, sendo que quatro comportaram-se como pouco suscetíveis, 11 como moderadamente suscetíveis e três altamente suscetíveis. A cultivar IPR Saracura mostrou menor grau de suscetibilidade e foi, então, usada na construção de 12 bibliotecas de RNAseq, visando à identificação dos genes envolvidos na reposta à infecção pelo nematoide. Foram adotados dois tratamentos, 4 e 10 DAI (dias após inoculação), compostos de plantas inoculadas e controles. Primeiramente, realizou-se o mapeamento dos transcritos de cada biblioteca, tomando como referência o genoma de P. vulgaris (G19833), o que resultou na identificação de 27.195 unigenes. Em seguida, foi realizada a quantificação da expressão dos transcritos mapeados e genes diferencialmente expressos foram identificados. No total, 191 genes do hospedeiro apresentaram expressão diferencial, considerando-se: i) o tratamento inoculado em relação ao controle; ii) a razão de expressão (Fold Change - FC) mínima absoluta igual a 4; iii) o nível de significância ? = 0,05. Do total, 120 genes foram identificados aos 4 DAI e 71 aos 10 DAI. As sequências mapeadas foram contrastadas àquelas dos bancos de dados NCBI e TAIR, usando a ferramenta BLASTx e, posteriormente, anotadas usando os softwares Blast2GO e MapMan. Detectou-se similaridade com genes codificadores de proteínas conhecidas para 90% (24.604/27.195) dos unigenes, sendo que 69% (16.991/24.604) deles foram anotados. Quanto à expressão diferencial, 98% (188/191) dos transcritos mostraram similaridade com proteínas conhecidas e 67% (127/188) puderam ser anotados. Os transcritos foram atribuídos a diferentes categorias funcionais putativas, predominando o termo ontológico \'processos metabólicos\', em ambas as plataformas. A anotação dos genes na plataforma MapMan mostrou abundância das categorias da via de resposta a estresse, com predominância de genes de defesa superexpressos aos 4 DAI e reprimidos aos 10 DAI. Por fim, 10 genes mostraram expressão diferencial tanto aos 4 como aos 10 DAI: sete deles foram estáveis, sendo superexpressos nas plantas inoculadas, e três apresentaram comportamentos opostos nos momentos avaliados. Ênfase foi dada a um gene que codifica uma \'probable inactive ADP-ribosyltransferase\' e a quatro genes de resposta a ferimento. / The common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) is attacked by a range of pathogens, which affect crop yield and the quality of grains. Among the pathogens of economic significance to the crop in Brazil, the root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne incognita) deserve attention. Though there are some reports on cultivar evaluation in presence of M. incognita, the resistance sources have not being effective. Therefore, it is of valuable importance research projects that could lead to a better understanding of plant-nematode interaction and to indicate new strategies for common bean breeding. In the present study, 18 cultivars of P. vulgaris were evaluated in regard to their resistance to M. incognita race 3; four were less susceptible, 11 moderately susceptible, and three were highly susceptible. \'IPR Saracura\' behaved as the less susceptible cultivar and then was selected for the construction of 12 RNAseq libraries, aiming at the identification of genes differentially expressed in response to nematode infection. Two treatments were adopted, 4 and 10 days after inoculation (DAI), each comprised of inoculated and control plants. Firstly, the transcripts were mapped to the reference genome of P. vulgaris (G19833), resulting in the identification of 27,195 unigenes. Then, the mapped transcript\'s expression was quantified and differentially expressed genes were identified. In total, 191 genes of the host plant showed differential expression taking into consideration: i) the inoculated treatments in relation to their control; ii) an absolute fold change (FC) >= 4; iii) a level of significance ? = 0,05. Of the total, 120 genes were detected at 4 DAI and 71 at 10 DAI. The mapped sequences were compared against those deposited in NCBI and TAIR databanks using BLASTx and subsequently annotated using Blast2GO and MapMan softwares. Similarity to known proteins was detected for 90% of the unigenes (24,604/27,195) and 69% (16,991/24,604) of them were annotated. Regarding assessing differential expression, 98% (188/191) of the transcripts showed similarity to known proteins and 67% (127/188) were annotated. Transcripts were attributed to different putative functional categories and the ontological term \'metabolic process\' was predominant within both platforms. Gene annotation within MapMan platform showed predominance of stress-related pathway categories, with prevalence of defense genes overexpressed at 4 DAI and repressed at 10 DAI. Finally, 10 genes showed differential expression at both 4 and 10 DAI: seven were stably overexpressed in the inoculated plants, and three showed an opposite behavior regarding the evaluation periods. Attention was given to a gene encoding a probable inactive ADP-ribosyltransferase and four genes related to wound response.

Extrafloral nectar (EFN) mediates food-for-protection mutualisms between plants and defensive insects. Senna mexicana var. chapmanii is a perennial legume native to the pine rockland habitats of south Florida. My dissertation focuses on how anthropogenic changes to the pine rocklands might affect EFN production by S. chapmanii, and the outcome of EFN mediated interactions. First, I investigated the influence of time of day, leaf damage, and leaf age on EFN production in S. chapmanii. Plants produced more nectar at night than during the day, and leaf damage resulted in increased EFN production. Furthermore, the response to leaf damage was greater when plants were damaged in the morning than when plants were damaged at night. Damage to young leaves elicited a stronger defensive response than damage to older leaves, in line with optimal defense theory. Second, I conducted a field experiment to determine the effects of ant activity, and light intensity, on herbivory rates, growth, and reproductive fitness in S. chapmanii. In shaded habitats, the presence of ants had no effect on herbivory rates, seed set, or plant size. In sunny habitats, however, plants with ants suffered less herbivore damage, produced more seeds, and grew larger over the duration of the one year study. Third, through a controlled greenhouse experiment I examined the effects of light intensity, and red/far-red light ratios, on EFN production in S. chapmanii. Plants in light-limited conditions produced less EFN, and leaf damage elicited increased EFN production regardless of light conditions. Ratios of red/far-red light, however, did not affect EFN production in either damaged or undamaged plants. Finally, I conducted a field study to determine how ants affect reproductive fitness in S. chapmanii. Over a period of eight months I observed the effects of ants on the activity of herbivores, predators, pollinators, and pre-dispersal seed predators. Relative pollinator efficiency, and rates of pre-dispersal seed predation, were unaffected by ants. Plants with ants, however, were quicker to establish, grew larger, and produced floral displays that attracted more pollinators. In S. chapmanii ants affected plant reproductive fitness simply by facilitating growth and establishment, with coincidental effects on reproductive investment.

La protection intégrée, qui vise à réduire l’usage des pesticides, est un défi majeur pour l’agriculture du XXIème siècle. Le développement de nouvelles approches agronomiques qui concilient environnement et agriculture est une condition indispensable pour l’agriculture de demain. Dans ce contexte, l’utilisation d’éliciteurs capables de mimer une attaque pathogène et de promouvoir un état de résistance chez les plantes face à des maladies représente une alternative naturelle à la lutte chimique. Ces éliciteurs sont nommés les stimulateurs de défense des plantes (SDP). Ils peuvent provenir de différentes sources et être extraits à partir de macroalgues comme c’est le cas des SDP à base de polysaccharides d’algues tels que la laminarine utilisée pour stimuler l’immunité de plantes agronomiques. Toutefois, l’exploitation de ces ressources dans leur milieu naturel et les difficultés de production liées à leur cycle de développement constituent des freins à leur utilisation. La valorisation des microalgues comme source de SDP pourrait permettre de s’affranchir de ces contraintes. Cependant la recherche et de molécules SDP chez les microalgues est encore peu abordée. Au cours de ce travail, le potentiel d’une culture de microalgue, Phaeodactylum tricornutum, à induire des réactions de défense chez les plantes a été évalué. Un broyat cellulaire a été appliqué sur des plantules d’Arabidopsis thaliana. Le caractère éliciteur de ce broyat a été testé et caractérisé par des approches microscopiques, physiologiques et moléculaires. Les résultats ont montré que les plantes traitées présentaient des niveaux d’expression des gènes PR-1, PAD3, ACS6 et WRKY40 et un niveau de protection contre la bactérie Pseudomonas syringae DC3000 (Pst) plus élevés que les plantes non traitées. De plus, un effet bactéricide in vitro sur la bactérie Pst a été observé. Ces résultats offrent de nouvelles perspectives pour le développement de produits SDP d’origine naturelle capables de protéger les cultures. / Integrated plant protection, which aims to reduce the use of pesticide, is a major challenge for the agriculture of the 21st century. The development and application of new agronomic approaches is a prerequisite for crop protection in a sustainable agriculture system. In this context, the use of elicitors capable of mimicking a pathogenic attack and promoting a plant resistance state against diseases is a natural alternative to the use of agro-chemicals. These elicitors are also called plant defense stimulators (PDS). These can be obtained from different sources including macroalgae as it the case for the polysaccharide-based PDS laminarin that is currently used for the protection of a number of crops. However, the exploitation of these natural resources and the difficulties of their production due to their development cycle do hamper their use at a large scale. One of the possibilities to overcome these difficulties is the use of microalgae as a source of PDS. But this possibility and the potential of microalgaederived PDS for crop protection are currently under investigated. In the present work, we have used a cell extract from the microalgae Phaeodactylum tricornutum and assessed its defense response-eliciting activities on Arabidopsis thaliana seedlings by using microscopic, physiological and molecular approaches. The results show that treated plants exhibit higher levels of expression of the PR-1, PAD3, ACS6 and WRKY40 genes and a higher level of protection against the pathogenic bacterium Pseudomonas syringae DC3000 (Pst) than nontreated plants. An In vitro antibacterial activity on the Pst bacteria was also observed. Our findings suggest that P. tricornutum cell extracts are able to activate plant immune responses and offer new perspectives for the development of novel plant defense stimulators.

Salicylic Acid Binding Protein 2 (SABP2) is a 29kDa protein present in extremely low amounts in tobacco leaves. SABP2 processes the mobile defense signal, methyl salicylic acid generated in plants resisting microbial infection. The precise localization of SABP2 in plants is not known. SABP2 has not been shown to have any targeting signal peptides. This study was designed to determine localization of SABP2 in tobacco plants. Biochemical and immunological studies using antibodies against SABP2 suggest that it is localized to the chloroplast, associating with chloroplast envelope membranes. Chloroplast import assays confirm that SABP2 is associated with the chloroplast envelope membrane. Solubilization and analysis of chloroplast membrane proteins show that imported SABP2 associates with the chloroplast envelope membrane by weak hydrophobic and/or ionic interactions. Cellular localization and understanding mechanisms of SABP2 import to the chloroplast will be important from a metabolic engineering standpoint to enhance plant natural defense against microbial pathogens.

Salicylic acid binding protein 2 (SABP2) is one of the key enzymes in salicylic acid-dependent plant defense pathway. SABP2 is a 29 kDa protein present in extremely low abundance in plants and it catalyzes the conversion of signaling molecule methyl salicylate into salicylic acid. Although it has been shown that 6x His-tagged SABP2 over expressed in E. coli is a homodimer, its exact conformation in planta is still unknown. Therefore, we proposed to determine if SABP2 exist as a dimer and/or monomer under natural condition. To verify the exact conformation of native SABP2 protein in plant, SABP2 was purified from wild type tobacco using a 5-step purification protocol. Analysis of purified SABP2 in gel filtration and immunoblot assay suggested that SABP2 exists as a monomer in tobacco plant. Studies on SABP2 conformation will give us insight into the structure and functional relationship of this protein in salicylic acid-dependent disease resistance pathway.

SABP2 (Salicylic Acid Binding Protein 2) plays a vital role in the salicylic acid signaling pathway of plants both regarding basal resistance and systemic acquired resistance against pathogen infection. SIP-428 (SABP2 Interacting Protein-428) is a Silent information regulator 2 (SIR2) like deacetylase enzyme that physically interacts with SABP2 in a yeast two-hybrid interaction and confirmed independently by a GST pull-down assay. We demonstrated that SIP- 428 is an NAD+ dependent SIR2 deacetylase enzyme. Transgenic tobacco plants silenced in SIP- 428 expression via RNAi showed enhanced basal resistance to microbial pathogens. Moreover, these SIP-428-silenced lines also exhibited a robust induction of systemic acquired resistance. In contrast, the transgenic tobacco lines overexpressing SIP-428 showed compromised basal resistance and failed to induce systemic acquired resistance. These results indicate that SIP-428 is likely a negative regulator of SA-mediated plant immunity. Experiments using a SABP2 inhibitor showed that SIP-428 likely functions upstream of SABP2 in the salicylic acid signaling pathway. It also indicates that SABP2 is dependent on SIP-428 for its role in the SA signaling pathway. Subcellular localization studies using confocal microscopy and subcellular fractionation showed that SIP-428 localized in the mitochondria. These results clearly show a role for SIP-428 in plant immunity.