O peso corporal dos animais tende a ser relativamente estável durante longos períodos de tempo. Situações de restrição calórica ou aumento na ingestão de calorias levam a alterações fisiológicas compensatórias que resistem aos efeitos destas perturbações. De fato, o gasto energético aumenta em animais submetidos à dieta hipercalórica, a chamada termogênese facultativa, de modo a manter os estoques energéticos constantes. É possível que defeitos na termogênese facultativa estejam envolvidos no desenvolvimento da obesidade. O BAT, o principal sítio de termogênese facultativa, é ativado pela liberação de NE pelo Sistema Nervoso Simpático, que se liga aos receptores adrenérgicos b1, b2 e b3 expressos nos adipócitos marrons. Diversos estudos demonstram que os receptores b são importantes na proteção contra a obesidade, mas ainda não é claro qual o papel de cada isoforma neste processo. Assim sendo, o objetivo do nosso trabalho foi avaliar o papel das isoformas b1 e b2 na mediação da termogênese facultativa induzida pela dieta. Para tanto, nós tratamos camundongos com nocaute para o receptor adrenérgico b1 (KOb1) e camundongos com nocaute para o receptor b2 (KOb2) com dieta hipercalórica por 22 semanas. O peso corporal foi medido diariamente e o consumo de oxigênio foi determinado usando-se um sistema de respirometria aberto ao final do experimento. A composição corporal foi determinada pela análise da carcaça. Animais foram expostos ao frio de 4ºC por 4h e sua temperatura corporal foi medida em vários tempos e a resposta térmica do iBAT foi determinada pela infusão de NE ou agonista b adrenérgico. Além disso, foram determinados os níveis de RNAm das isoformas de receptores adrenérgicos b nos animais nocaute. Os resultados obtidos em nosso estudo mostram que os animais KOb1 e KOb2 tratados com dieta hipercalórica não desenvolvem obesidade mais severa do que os animais selvagens mas não são capazes de aumentar o consumo de oxigênio induzido pela dieta, sugerindo que estes receptores não são relevantes na termogênese induzida pela dieta. Por outro lado, nossos dados indicam que a presença do receptor b1 é exigida para termogênese induzida pelo frio, uma vez que os camundongos KOb1 são sensíveis ao frio e a capacidade termogênica do BAT destes animais em reposta à NE é bastante reduzida quando comparados com animais selvagens. A ausência do receptor b2 não piora a resposta dos animais ao frio sugerindo que esta isoforma não esteja envolvida na termogênese induzida pela dieta ou pelo frio. Os nossos achados indicam que a isoforma do receptor adrenérgico b1 é fundamental na termogênese induzida pelo frio, mas não pela dieta. Além disso, é provável que a termogênese induzida pela dieta seja regulada por mecanismos distintos da termogênese induzida pelo frio. / The body weight of animals tends to be relatively stable over long periods of time. Situations of caloric restriction or increase in intake of calories lead to compensatory physiological changes that resist the effects of these disorders. In fact, the energy expenditure increases in animals treated with diet hypercaloric called facultative thermogenesis, in order to keep to energy stock constant. Defects in this facultative thermogenesis may be related to the development of obesity. Brown adipose tissue is the main site of facultative thermogenesis and is activated by signaling of b1, b2 e b3 adrenergic receptors by Norepinephrine released by Sympathetic Nervous System. Several studies showed that the isoforms b of adrenergic receptors are important in mechanisms involved in obesity and also in promoting cold tolerance. Nonetheless, it is unclear the role of each isoform in these process. Therefore, the purpose of our study was to evaluate the role of isoforms b1 and b2 in mediate the facultative thermogenesis. For that, we fed nocaute mice for the adrenergic receptor b1 (KOb1) and nocaute mice for the adrenergic receptor b2 (KOb2) with high fat diet for 22 weeks. During treatment body weight was determined daily. By the end of the experiment oxygen consumption was measured using a system of open respirometry and body composition was determined by analysis of the carcass. We also exposed KOb1 and KOb2 animals to cold (4C). The thermogenic response of iBAT was evaluated through i.v NE infusion. The results obtained in our study showed that the animals KOb1 and KOb2 treated with high fat diet did not gain more fat when compared to wild type animals, but are unable to increase the oxygen consumption, suggesting that these receptors are not relevant in development of obesity. Furthermore, our data indicate that the presence of the b1 receptor is required for cold-induced thermogenesis, since the KOb1 mice are sensitive to cold and BAT thermogenic response is significantly impaired when compared with animals wild type. The absence of b2 receptor does not worsen the response of animals to cold suggesting that this isoform is not involved in the diet- or cold- induced thermogenesis. In conclusion, our findings indicate that the b1 isoform of the adrenergic receptor is critical in the cold-induced thermogenesis, but not in diet induced thermogenesis. Moreover, it is likely that the diet-induced thermogenesis and cold-induced thermogenesis are regulated by different mechanisms.

No description available.

L’un des domaines clés de la recherche en neurosciences modernes consiste à comprendre les interactions complexes entre le stress et la génétique qui conduisent à la manifestation de troubles tels que la dépression, l’anxiété et le dysfonctionnement cognitif. Des preuves de plus en plus nombreuses suggèrent que le système glutamatergique peut être une cible thérapeutique pertinente pour de tels troubles. Le glutamate est le neurotransmetteur utilisé par la grande majorité des synapses excitatrices dans le cerveau. Et les sous-types des récepteurs métabotropique au glutamate (mGluR1 – mGluR8) agissent avant tout comme d’importants régulateurs postsynaptiques de la neurotransmission dans le système nerveux central (SNC), en fournissant un mécanisme par lequel les réponses synaptiques rapides à travers des canaux cationiques dépendants du glutamate peuvent être affinées. Ainsi, les récepteurs mGluR participent à une grande variété de fonctions du système nerveux central. Au sein dela famille des récepteurs métabotropiques au glutamate, le récepteur présynaptique mGluR7 montre la conservation évolutive la plus élevée et on pense qu'il agit comme un régulateur de la libération de neurotransmetteurs. Le récepteur mGluR7 est également le plus largement distribué des récepteurs présynaptiques mGluR, présent sur une large gamme de synapses démontrées comme critiques à la fois dans le fonctionnement normal du système nerveux central, mais également dans une large gamme de troubles psychiatriques et neurologiques. De plus, un nombre croissant de preuves expérimentales suggèrent que le récepteur mGluR7 est non seulement un acteur clé dans l’élaboration de réponses synaptiques au niveau des synapses glutamatergiques, mais qu’il est également un régulateur clé de la transmission GABAergique inhibitrice. Le développement d’outils pharmacologiques et génétiques sélectifs a permis le démantèlement de la fonction du récepteur mGluR7 dans une multitude de processus physiologiques et comportementaux. Ainsi les souris knock-out ont mis en évidence un rôle du récepteur mGluR7 dans l’anxiété, le conditionnement de la peur, l’aversion, l’apprentissage et la mémoire spatiale. De plus, ces souris dépourvues du récepteur métabrotrope mGluR7 démontrent une sensibilité accrue aux crises épileptiques suggérant un rôle unique de ce récepteur dans la régulation de l’excitabilité neuronale. De même, une altération de la plasticité synaptique à court terme dans les souris transgéniques dépourvues du récepteur métabotrope au glutamate mGluR7 démontre que l’absence de récepteurs mGluR7 engendre des altérations de la plasticité synaptique à court terme dans l’hippocampe. En outre, la découverte et la caractérisation récente du premier antagoniste allostérique agissant sur le domaine VFTD de l’extrémité N-terminale du récepteur mGluR7 potentialise définitivement les observations effectuées sur les souris mGluR7 knock-out quant à la fonction de ce récepteur dans l’anxiété et la dépression. Ensemble, ces données suggèrent que le récepteur mGluR7 est un important régulateur de la fonction glutamatergique, de la peur, de l’aversion et de la cognition et donc ce récepteur représente une cible thérapeutique innovante pour les troubles liés au stress à l’interface de la cognition et de l’anxiété. / Metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs) consist of eight different subtypes and exert their effects on second messengers and ion channels via G-proteins. The function of individual mGluR subtypes in the CNS, however, largely remains to be clarified. To study the role of mGluR7 receptors, we used homologous recombination to generate mice lacking this metabotropic receptor subtype (mGluR7). Immunohistochemical and immunoelectron-microscopic analyses showed that mGluR7 is highly expressed in amygdala and preferentially localized at the presynaptic axon terminals of glutamatergic neurons, suggesting strongly that mGluR7 is involved in neural processes subserving amygdala-dependent averse responses. To examine amygdala-dependent behavior, we examined first the fear response of freezing after electric shock in wild-type and mGluR7 (mGluR7-/-) knockout littermates. Wild-type mice displayed freezing immediately after footshock. In comparison, mGluR7 knockout mice showed significantly reduced levels in both immediate postshock and delayed freezing responses. However, the knockout mice exhibited no abnormalities in pain sensitivity and locomotor activity. Secondly, we performed conditioned taste aversion (CTA) experiments. In wild-type mice, the administration of saccharin followed by intraperitoneal injection of the malaise-inducing agent LiCl resulted in an association between saccharin and LiCl. This association caused strong CTA toward saccharin. In contrast, mGluR7 knockout mice failed to associate between the taste and the negative reinforcer in CTA experiments. Again, the knockout mice showed no abnormalities in taste preference and in the sensitivity to LiCl toxicity. These results indicated that mGluR7 deficiency causes an impairment of two distinct amygdala-dependent behavioral paradigms. Because the amygdale function is essential for these two distinct behavioral paradigms, our results suggest that mGluR7 is critical in amygdale function. The amygdale is a brain region that is known to be critical for the manifestation of anxiolysis and antidepressant action and glutamatergic neurotransmission has been strongly implicated in the pathophysiology of affective disorders. To this end we analyzed the behavioral profiles of mGluR7-/- mice in animal models of depression and anxiety. mGluR7-/- mice were compared to wildtype littermates and showed substantially less behavioural immobility in both the forced swim test and the tail suspension test. Both behavioural paradigms are widely used to predict antidepressant-like activity. Further, mGluR7-/- mice displayed anxiolytic activity in four different behavioural tests namely the light-dark box, the elevated plus maze, the staircase test, and the stress-induced hyperthermia test, while their cognitive performance was normal in the passive avoidance paradigm. [...]

Sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) is a bioactive sphingolipid metabolite and an important signaling molecule that plays a significant role in fibrosis. S1P synthesis is catalyzed by sphingosine kinases (SphKs), which phosphorylate sphingosine into S1P. The present study tested the hypothesis that SphK1-S1P signaling pathway participates in the kidney damage in unilateral ureteral obstruction (UUO) model. Wild type and SphK1 knockout mice were subjected to UUO for 7 days or 14 days and then four groups of kidneys were collected: wild type control group (WT-C), wild type UUO group (WT-UUO), SphK1-/- control group (KO-C) and SphK1-/- UUO group (KO-UUO). The mRNA level of SphK1 in WT-UUO was increased by 6.1 folds compared to WT-C. The fibrotic markers α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) and collagen I were both upregulated in UUO groups, whereas the levels of these two markers were significant lower in KO-UUO than that in WT-UUO. The immunohistochemistry analyses showed that the distribution of α-SMA and collagen was located in the interstitial space and that the infiltration of immune cells was more in UUO groups than that in control groups, but there was no significant difference between KO-UUO and WT-UUO, suggesting a direct effect of SphK1 deletion on renal fibrotic markers independent of immune regulation. Further, the morphological examination showed that UUO-induced tubular injury and glomerular damage were significantly reduced in KO-UUO compared with WT-UUO. Our study suggests that SphK1-S1P signaling pathway mediates kidney damage in UUO mice. Manipulating SphK1-S1P signaling pathway may be used as a therapeutic strategy in renal interstitial fibrosis.

Aspergillus fumigatus has long been a focus of research, as it is the cause of the majority of Aspergillus infections. A. fumigatus is widely distributed in the environment and mainly distributed in air as conidia and is the main source of lung infection. A. fumigatus airborne counts were determined monthly during two years from the outside air environment at the University of Manchester campus and compared to total fungal airborne counts. Total fungal airborne counts were strongly seasonally associated with peak counts occurring during the summer months reaching 1,100-1400 CFU m-3and were correlated positively with mean temperature (R2=0.697). In contrast, Aspergillus fumigatus counts were not seasonally associated and gave persistent low levels of between 3-20 CFU m-3and were not correlated with mean temperature. A random selection of Manchester environmental isolates collected over one year along with clinical patient isolates and environmental isolates from the air from Dublin were analysed for genetic diversity using two combined RAPD primers. RAPD analysis revealed that the Manchester environmental isolates represented a genetically diverse population while the clinical isolates were less diverse and formed three major clusters. The Dublin isolates were the least diverse, probably due to their isolation at a single time point. When the pathogenicity of clinical and Dublin isolates were compared with a random selection of Manchester isolates in a wax moth model, as a group, clinical isolates were significantly more pathogenic than environmental isolates. Moreover, when relative pathogenicity of individual isolates was compared, clinical isolates were the most pathogenic, Dublin isolates the least pathogenic and Manchester isolates showed a range of pathogenicities suggesting that selection for the most pathogenic isolates from the environment occurs during patient infection. When the expression of secreted phospholipases in vitro during wax moth larvae of a range of isolates displaying varying degrees of pathogenicity was compared, two phospholipase C genes, AfplcA and AfplcC were strongly correlated with pathogenicity. AfplcC was by far the most highly expressed, however a ΔAfplcC knockout strain did not show attenuated virulence compared to the wild type in wax moth larvae.

La myostatine, un facteur de croissance de la famille des TGF-β dont la voie de signalisation agit via l'Activine récepteur de type IIB (ActRIIB), a été identifié comme un régulateur négatif important de la croissance du muscle squelettique. Toutefois, son effet sur le métabolisme énergétique musculaire et sur la fonction du muscle reste largement inexploré. Dans mes travaux de thèse, j'ai étudié la conséquence de l'inhibition de la voie de signalisation ActRIIB sur le métabolisme musculaire, et ceci dans deux modèles expérimentaux, i) les souris constitutives knock-out myostatine et ii) après l'administration pharmacologique de l'ActRIIB soluble chez les souris adultes. Nos résultats démontrent que les souris knock-out myostatine développent une forte fatigabilité, une diminution de la respiration mitochondriale et une signature moléculaire qui tend vers un métabolisme glycolytique. Comme ces résultats peuvent s'expliquer par une conversion congénitale vers des fibres musculaires glycolytiques rapides chez ces souris, j'ai étudié l'effet de l'inhibition de la voie de signalisation ActRIIB chez la souris adulte. J'ai fourni des preuves, notamment pour la souris mdx, modèle animal de la myopathie de Duchenne, que l'inhibition de l'ActRIIB, malgré une distribution de typage de fibres qui reste normale, conduit à une intolérance extrême à l'exercice. Cela a été associé à une augmentation pathologique des taux de lactate sérique ainsi que des caractéristiques prononcées de la myopathie. Plus en détail, l'analyse biochimique et moléculaire montre que l'inhibition de la voie de signalisation ActRIIB diminue l'expression de la protéine porine, réduit la capillarisation musculaire et provoque une déficience de la phosphorylation oxydative. Je montre aussi que l’ActRIIB régule les composants clés du métabolisme musculaire, comme PPARß, Pgc1α, et PDK4, optimisant ainsi les différentes composantes du métabolisme énergétique musculaire. En somme, mes résultats démontrent que l’inhibition de l’ActRIIB provoque une myopathie métabolique, en particulier dans le contexte d’un muscle dystrophique, chez lequel un stress métabolique sous-jacent existe déjà. En conclusion, je ne peux pas recommander l'utilisation de l’inhibition de la voie de signalisation de l’ActRIIB comme stratégie thérapeutique pour les maladies musculaires. / Myostatin, a growth factor of the TGF-β family that signals through the activin receptor-IIB (ActRIIB), has been identified as an important negative regulator of skeletal muscle growth. However, its effect on muscle energy metabolism and energy dependent muscle function remains largely unexplored. I here investigated the consequence of impaired ActRIIB signaling for muscle metabolism in two experimental models, i) the constitutive myostatin knockout mice and ii) following pharmacological administration of soluble ActRIIB in adult mice. Our results demonstrate that myostatin knockout mice develop a strong fatigability, a decrease in mitochondrial respiration and a molecular signature towards a glycolytic metabolism. As these findings may be explained by the congenital shift towards fast glycolytic muscle fibers in these mice, I investigated the effect of inhibition of ActRIIB signaling in adult mice. I provide evidence, notably for the mdx mouse, model for Duchenne muscular dystrophy, that ActRIIB blockade, despite an unchanged fiber type distribution, leads to extreme exercise intolerance. This was associated with pathologically increased serum lactate levels and myopathic features. In-depth biochemical and molecular analysis demonstrates that blockade of ActRIIB signaling down-regulates the ATP channel porin, reduces muscle capillarization and leads to a consecutive deficiency in oxidative phosphorylation. I also show that ActRIIB regulates key determinants of muscle metabolism, such as Pparβ, Pgc1α, and Pdk4, thereby optimizing different components of muscle energy metabolism. Taken together, my results demonstrate that ActRIIB blockade provokes a metabolic myopathy, especially in the context of dystrophic muscle, in which an underlying metabolic stress already exists. In conclusion, I cannot recommend the use of ActRIIB signaling blockade as a therapeutic strategy for muscle diseases.

No presente estudo realizamos uma análise ultraestrutural e imuhistoquímica da organização das fibrilas de colágeno no endométrio durante a gestação de camundongos silvestres e deficientes em decorim. Os resultados mostraram que as fibrilas de colágeno em ambos os genótipos sofrem grande variação de forma e tamanho. Observou-se variação significante, na percentagem de distribuição dos diâmetros das fibrilas de colágeno existentes na região decidualizada em ambos os genótipos, porém foi maior nos animais Dcn-/-. Estes animais também apresentam maior percentagem de fibrilas finas quando comparados aos animais Dcn+/+. Observamos ainda que biglicam é expresso no endométrio não decidualizado dos animais Dcn-/-, no 3º dia de gestação. A expressão de lumicam mostrou-se nítida no estroma decidualizado e não decidualizado nos animais Dcn-/- no 7º dia de gestação e foi ausente nos animais Dcn-/-. Estes resultados mostraram que a ausência do decorim promove distúrbios no processo de agregação lateral das fibrilas espessas de colágeno. / The present study is an ultrastructural investigation into the organization of collagen fibrils in the pregnant endometrium of wild-type and decorin-deficient mice. Our results showed that collagen fibrils from both genotypes present a great variability of shape and size in cross section. Significant variation in the diameter of collagen fibrils exists in the decidualized endometrium from both groups of animals. In the decidualized endometrium, the diameter of collagen fibrils increases in both genotypes were higher in Dcn-/- than in Dcn+/+ animals. In the Dcn-/- animals the percentage of thin fibrils with diameter is also higher, when compared with Dcn+/+ animals. We also showed that Bgn is expressed in the non decidualized endometrium in the Dcn-/- animals, on day 3 of pregnancy. The expression of lumican showed a very sharp labeling in the decidualized stroma from day 7, and in the non decidualized estroma from Dcn-/- animals. These results suggest that the deficience of decorin may play a role on collagen fibrillogenesis in different stages of pregnancy.

京都大学 / 0048 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(生命科学) / 甲第22133号 / 生博第420号 / 新制||生||55(附属図書館) / 京都大学大学院生命科学研究科高次生命科学専攻 / (主査)教授 渡邊 直樹, 教授 千坂 修, 教授 原田 浩 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Philosophy in Life Sciences / Kyoto University / DFAM

Fam84b is a largely unstudied protein, where its function in eukaryotic cells is unclear. This thesis work presents a FAM84B knockout mouse model and characterises the resulting retinal phenotype in detail. FAM84B KO mice were morphologically assessed by optical coherence tomography and histological processing, revealing dynamic changes stemming from the photoreceptor and pigmented epithelial layers. This potent phenotype progresses with age, spreading inwards towards the inner retinal layers, as well as laterally to adjacent retinal regions. Comparative localisation of standard retinal cell markers demonstrates that FAM84B KO retinal layering becomes increasingly disorganised, together with deformation of the retinal macrostructure. Due to this, KO mice experience reducing responses to light, as demonstrated by electroretinography, where overall retinal efficiency falls. Fam84b shows homology to the HRASLS enzyme family, which are capable of attenuating Ras-associated signalling. To investigate whether Fam84b possesses a similar function, the level of phosphorylated and activated downstream Ras effectors were compared between wild type and FAM84B KO mouse retinal lysates. A reduction of pERK1 (pY204) in KO lysates suggests that Fam84b holds some function related to this pathway downstream of Ras....

Haloferax mediterranei es un microorganismo halófilo extremo que se incluye dentro del Dominio Archaea. Es capaz de crecer utilizando carbohidratos, ácidos carboxílicos, alcoholes y aminoácidos como fuentes de carbono y energía. Además, puede crecer en medio definido en presencia de glucosa como única fuente de carbono, y con nitrato o nitrito como única fuente de nitrógeno a través de la vía de asimilación utilizando las nitrato y nitrito reductasas asimilativas. El nitrato lo utiliza reduciéndolo a amonio, el cual es incorporado a esqueletos carbonados vía glutamato deshidrogenasa (GDH) en condiciones de exceso de nitrógeno o mediante la ruta glutamina sintetasaglutamato sintasa (GS-GOGAT) bajo condiciones de deficiencia de nitrógeno. La glutamina sintetasa (GS; EC 6.3.1.2) se encuentra en todos los Dominios, que participa en la asimilación del amonio y en la biosíntesis de glutamina, actuando como donador de nitrógeno para la síntesis de proteínas y de ácidos nucleicos. Esta enzima cataliza la biosíntesis de glutamina mediante la reacción biosintética dependiente de magnesio o manganeso, a partir de glutamato, ATP y amonio. En el genoma de Hfx. mediterranei se localizaron tres genes que presentaron homología con glutamina sintetasa, en base a la presencia de tres dominios conservados (COG0174: transporte y metabolismo de aminoácidos; pfam00120: dominio catalítico y pfam03951: dominio beta-Grasp) que se utilizan para identificar a las GSs. También se observó que uno de los genes mantiene conservadas las tres secuencias consenso características de GSs (glnA), mientras que los otros dos genes (glnA-2 y glnA-3) contienen parcialmente conservada una de ellas. Con el objetivo de conocer qué funciones desempeñan estas tres proteínas en la asimilación del nitrógeno, y si concretamente glnA-2 y glnA-3 ejercen un papel importante en este proceso, cada una de las tres proteínas halofílicas se clonó y expresó heterólogamente en la cepa BL21 (DE3) de E. coli, utilizando el vector de expresión pET3a, obteniéndose las proteínas en forma de cuerpos de inclusión. Cada una de estas fracciones sólidas se solubilizaron utilizando urea 8 M, y posteriormente se diluyeron en un tampón conteniendo NaCl 2 M y DTT 5 mM para conseguir su renaturalización. Posteriormente, se llevó a cabo la purificación de cada una por separado mediante una única etapa a través de una cromatografía en DEAE-celulosa; obteniéndose puras cada una de las proteínas y concentradas de forma rápida y con un buen rendimiento. La caracterización de la GS (GlnA) recombinante indicó que se trataba de una enzima dependiente de metales catiónicos divalentes, regulada por los efectores 2-oxoglutarato y glutamina. La proteína fue activada por 2-oxoglutarato e inhibida por glutamina. Mediante la técnica de velocidad de sedimentación se determinó que su estructura oligomérica consistía en 12 subunidades y se clasificó como GS tipo I, incluida en la subdivisión α. Se generaron mutantes de deleción de glnA y glnA-3 en Hfx. mediterranei mediante la técnica pop-in pop-out, que permitió la sustitución de una secuencia concreta del genoma por otra modificada in vitro. Para la obtención de los mutantes se utilizó la cepa HM26 (ΔpyrE2) de Hfx. mediterranei. Primeramente, se construyó un cassette de deleción para la obtención de un producto de fusión de 1000 pb (versión incompleta del gen) que se clonó en el vector pMH101N, conteniendo una copia del gen pyrE2, el cual se utilizó como marcador genético. Los mutantes pop-in se seleccionaron en un medio carente de uracilo, ya que sólo las células que codificaron el gen pyrE2, presente en el plásmidos suicida, pudieron sintetizar de novo dicho compuesto y crecer. Posteriormente, el plásmido suicida se perdió y junto con él una de las copias del gen, delecionada u original (mutante pop-out). Finalmente se obtuvieron los mutantes de deleción para los genes glnA y glnA-3, de los cuales glnA resultó ser un gen esencial en la asimilación de amonio y en la síntesis de glutamina, puesto que aquellos mutantes que presentaron la deleción de glnA fueron incapaces de crecer en un medio definido carente de glutamina; se trató por tanto de mutantes auxótrofos para este aminoácido, que únicamente crecieron al adicionar glutamina en el medio de cultivo. Finalmente, para conocer el efecto que produce la fuente de nitrógeno sobre la expresión global de los genes en Hfx. mediterranei, se realizó un array de expresión de la cepa R4 (silvestre) y se determinó la expresión global de genes en tres medios de cultivo con diferentes fuentes de nitrógeno: cultivo con amonio como fuente de nitrógeno en fase estacionaria y exponencial de crecimiento, cultivo con nitrato en mitad de fase exponencial de crecimiento y cultivos con carencia de nitrógeno. Las principales diferencias en expresión de genes se detectaron en los medios de nitrato y carencia de nitrógeno con respecto a amonio, los resultados sugirieron que la ausencia de amonio fue el factor responsable para la expresión de genes implicados en la ruta de asimilación de nitrato. Concretamente, en carencia de nitrógeno la GS mostró una mayor expresión que en medio con amonio. Para analizar los cambios de expresión en los genes glnA-2 y glnA-3 se realizó un nuevo array de expresión de la cepa HM26-A (ΔpyrE2 ΔglnA) utilizando como control la cepa parental HM26 (ΔpyrE2). Se determinó la expresión en dos medios de cultivo, en medio complejo suplementado con glutamina 40 mM en mitad de fase exponencial de crecimiento y en medio con carencia en nitrógeno. Tanto en la cepa HM26-A con carencia en nitrógeno como en la cepa parental HM26 se detectaron cambios de expresión en los genes relacionados con la vía asimilativa del metabolismo del nitrógeno de esta arquea halófila. En la cepa HM26 en carencia de nitrógeno con respecto a medio complejo con gln 40 mM se mostró una menor expresión de los genes glnA-2 y glnA-3 y una sobreexpresión de glnA. Mientras que en la cepa HM26-A en medio complejo con glutamina frente a la cepa HM26 en medio complejo en carencia de nitrógeno, al delecionar glnA, los genes glnA-2 y glnA-3 mostraron un incremento de expresión.que en la cepa HM26-A en medio complejo con glutamina frente a la cepa HM26 en medio complejo en carencia de nitrógeno, al delecionar glnA, los genes glnA-2 y glnA-3 mostraron un incremento de expresión. En conclusión, la glutamina sintetasa de Hfx. mediterranei es una enzima de tipo GSI-α, dodecamérica, resultando ser una proteína esencial en la asimilación de amonio y en la síntesis de glutamina; siendo activa en condiciones de deficiencia de nitrógeno, a diferencia de las isoformas GlnA-2 y GlnA-3 que podrían ejercer un papel regulador de GlnA y posiblemente actúen en la célula en condiciones de abundancia de nitrógeno.