Nombreux individus vont expérimenter avec les drogues d’abus, mais peu vont devenir toxicomanes. Plusieurs facteurs sont impliqués dans la transition d’un usage récréatif à l’addiction. Les drogues, les conditionnements et les voies d’administration qui mènent à l’augmentation rapide du taux drogue dans le cerveau favorisent cette évolution. La raison est méconnue. Nous avons émis l’hypothèse que l’injection rapide de drogue promeut des changements dans le cerveau qui mènent à l’augmentation de la consommation et de la motivation à obtenir la drogue. Nous avons comparé la consommation lors de conditions à ratio fixe (FR) et à ratio progressif (PR) chez des rats s’auto-administrant la cocaïne administrée par voie intraveineuse (i.v.) en 5 ou 90 secondes (s). Tous les rats ont été entrainés à peser sur un levier afin de s’auto administrer des injections de cocaïne de 0.25 ou 0.5 mg/kg par voie intraveineuse injectée en 5 s sous FR avant d’être divisés en groupes s’auto administrant la cocaïne injectée en 5 ou 90 s pendant 1 heure (h)/session. Pour étudier les différences potentielles en consommation, l’accès à la cocaïne à été augmenté à 6 h/session. Les différences en motivation ont été détectées par l’auto administration de la cocaïne sous PR en fonction de la dose et de la vitesse d’infusion. L’accès à la drogue pendant 1 h/session n’a pas influencé la consommation. Lorsque l’accès a été prolongé à 6 h, tous les animaux ont augmenté leur consommation, mais l’augmentation était plus prononcée chez les rats s’injectant la cocaïne en 5 s. De plus, la vitesse d’injection a influencé la motivation pour obtenir la drogue. Lors de conditions à PR, la courbe dose-réponse pour le nombre d’infusions prises a été déplacée vers le haut pour les rats s’auto administrant des injections de cocaïne en 5 s versus 90 s. De plus, des différences qualitatives on été observées en PR. La consommation de cocaïne des rats s’injectant des infusions en 5 s était dépendante de la dose, tandis que les rats s’auto administrant la drogue en 90 s ont pris la même quantité de drogue, peu importe la dose. Finalement, les rats s’auto administrant des infusions de cocaïne 0.5 mg/kg en 5 s ont consommé plus de cocaïne que les rats prenant des infusions en 90 s, peu importe si elle était injectée en 5 ou 90 s le jour du test. Ainsi, nos résultats montrent que l’injection rapide de drogue dans le cerveau mène à l’augmentation de la consommation et de la motivation pour obtenir la cocaïne, deux symptômes qui caractérisent la toxicomanie. / While many people will experiment with drugs of abuse, few will become addicts. Many factors have been implicated in the transition from recreational drug use to addiction. Drugs, formulations and routes of administration that lead to the rapid rise of drug levels in the brain are thought to facilitate this evolution. The reason for this remains unknown. We hypothesized that the rapid delivery of drugs might promote certain changes in the brain leading to increased drug intake and greater motivation to obtain the drug. In order to assess the effects of the speed of administration, we compared drug intake under fixed (FR) and progressive (PR) ratio conditions in rats self-administering intravenous (i.v.) cocaine injections delivered over either 5 or 90 seconds (s). Rats were trained to press a lever for 0.25 or 0.5 mg/kg cocaine injections delivered over 5 s under a FR schedule of reinforcement, before being divided into groups self-administering cocaine delivered over either 5 or 90 s for 1 hour (h)/session. To assess potential differences in drug consumption, access to cocaine was increased to 6 h/session. To assess differences in motivation for cocaine, drug self-administration was determined under a PR schedule of reinforcement both as a function of dose and infusion rate. When animals were given access to i.v. cocaine for 1 h/session, the infusion speed did not influence drug consumption. However, when access to the drug was prolonged to 6 h/session, all animals augmented their drug intake, though the increase was greater in animals self-administering the drug delivered more rapidly (over 5 vs. 90 s). The speed of drug delivery also influenced the motivation for cocaine. Under PR conditions, the dose response curve for the number of self-administered infusions was shifted upward in the 5-s animals relative to those in the 90-s group. Moreover, qualitative differences were observed in cocaine intake under PR conditions. Whereas the intake of rats self-administering cocaine delivered over 5 s was dose-dependent, drug consumption in rats injecting the drug over 90 s did not vary with the dose. Finally, rats self-administering 0.5 mg/kg cocaine infusions delivered over 5 s took more cocaine than the rats receiving it over 90 s, regardless of whether cocaine was delivered over 5 or 90 s during PR testing. Thus, our results show that increasing the speed at which cocaine is delivered to the brain leads to greater drug intake and increased willingness to expend effort to obtain the drug, two important symptoms of addiction.

Cocaine is a plant-based illicit drug commonly involved in substance use disorder. Although cocaine overdose and cocaine use disorders cause adverse health consequences to individuals and the economic burden on their family and society, there are no FDA (Food and Drug Administration) approved medications for treatment. Recently, it has been recognized that delivery of cocaine hydrolase (CocH) is a promising therapeutic strategy. Human butyrylcholinesterase (hBChE), the primary enzyme involved in cocaine metabolism in human, have advantages over other candidates for the development of CocH. Previous studies in our laboratory have designed and characterized hBChE mutants that have ~4,000-fold improved catalytic efficiency against naturally occurring (-)-cocaine as compared to the wild-type hBChE. Besides the catalytic efficiency, the biological half-life is another essential factor that influences the desired therapeutic value in the long-term treatment of cocaine use disorder. In order to provide prolonged effects to reduce administration frequency in clinical use, efforts have been made to increase the retention time of CocHs in blood circulation by fusing CocHs with other thermostable proteins or their mutants, including human serum albumin (Albu) or the Fc region of the human IgG (Fc). In this dissertation, we demonstrated the clinical potential and the benefits of long-lasting CocHs for cocaine overdose treatment. We used rodent models to show the ability of AlbuCocH1 to block or reverse manifestations of toxic effects of cocaine. In addition, a concomitant LC-MS/MS-based analysis was conducted to investigate the pharmacokinetic profile of a lethal dose of cocaine with the presence of AlbuCocH1. These experimental data demonstrated AlbuCocH1 as an effective cocaine detoxification agent by accelerating the metabolism of cocaine. In order to examine the potential therapeutic value of Fc-fused CocHs in the treatment of cocaine use disorder, we conducted a series of behavioral experiments in rats to evaluate the effectiveness and duration of Fc-fused CocHs in blocking or attenuating cocaine-induced psychostimulant and discriminative stimulus effects. In addition, the intravenous self-administration model was used to investigate the long-term effectiveness of Fc-fused CocHs in blocking or attenuating the reinforcing effects of cocaine. It has been shown that a single dose of E30-6-Fc (3 mg/kg) was able to effectively alter the cocaine dose-response curve and attenuate the reinforcing efficacy of cocaine for at least a month in both male and female rats. In summary, AlbuCocH1 (TV-1380), which failed to meet the primary efficacy endpoint in clinical trials for facilitating abstinence in cocaine-dependent subjects with a weekly dosing schedule (due to the short biological half-life), is more suitable to be developed as a cocaine detoxification agent. On the contrary, the newly designed Fc-fused CocH (e.g. CocH3-Fc, E30-6-Fc) with higher catalytic efficiency and longer biological half-life will be beneficial for long-term abstinence management in cocaine-dependent individuals.

Nombreux individus vont expérimenter avec les drogues d’abus, mais peu vont devenir toxicomanes. Plusieurs facteurs sont impliqués dans la transition d’un usage récréatif à l’addiction. Les drogues, les conditionnements et les voies d’administration qui mènent à l’augmentation rapide du taux drogue dans le cerveau favorisent cette évolution. La raison est méconnue. Nous avons émis l’hypothèse que l’injection rapide de drogue promeut des changements dans le cerveau qui mènent à l’augmentation de la consommation et de la motivation à obtenir la drogue. Nous avons comparé la consommation lors de conditions à ratio fixe (FR) et à ratio progressif (PR) chez des rats s’auto-administrant la cocaïne administrée par voie intraveineuse (i.v.) en 5 ou 90 secondes (s). Tous les rats ont été entrainés à peser sur un levier afin de s’auto administrer des injections de cocaïne de 0.25 ou 0.5 mg/kg par voie intraveineuse injectée en 5 s sous FR avant d’être divisés en groupes s’auto administrant la cocaïne injectée en 5 ou 90 s pendant 1 heure (h)/session. Pour étudier les différences potentielles en consommation, l’accès à la cocaïne à été augmenté à 6 h/session. Les différences en motivation ont été détectées par l’auto administration de la cocaïne sous PR en fonction de la dose et de la vitesse d’infusion. L’accès à la drogue pendant 1 h/session n’a pas influencé la consommation. Lorsque l’accès a été prolongé à 6 h, tous les animaux ont augmenté leur consommation, mais l’augmentation était plus prononcée chez les rats s’injectant la cocaïne en 5 s. De plus, la vitesse d’injection a influencé la motivation pour obtenir la drogue. Lors de conditions à PR, la courbe dose-réponse pour le nombre d’infusions prises a été déplacée vers le haut pour les rats s’auto administrant des injections de cocaïne en 5 s versus 90 s. De plus, des différences qualitatives on été observées en PR. La consommation de cocaïne des rats s’injectant des infusions en 5 s était dépendante de la dose, tandis que les rats s’auto administrant la drogue en 90 s ont pris la même quantité de drogue, peu importe la dose. Finalement, les rats s’auto administrant des infusions de cocaïne 0.5 mg/kg en 5 s ont consommé plus de cocaïne que les rats prenant des infusions en 90 s, peu importe si elle était injectée en 5 ou 90 s le jour du test. Ainsi, nos résultats montrent que l’injection rapide de drogue dans le cerveau mène à l’augmentation de la consommation et de la motivation pour obtenir la cocaïne, deux symptômes qui caractérisent la toxicomanie. / While many people will experiment with drugs of abuse, few will become addicts. Many factors have been implicated in the transition from recreational drug use to addiction. Drugs, formulations and routes of administration that lead to the rapid rise of drug levels in the brain are thought to facilitate this evolution. The reason for this remains unknown. We hypothesized that the rapid delivery of drugs might promote certain changes in the brain leading to increased drug intake and greater motivation to obtain the drug. In order to assess the effects of the speed of administration, we compared drug intake under fixed (FR) and progressive (PR) ratio conditions in rats self-administering intravenous (i.v.) cocaine injections delivered over either 5 or 90 seconds (s). Rats were trained to press a lever for 0.25 or 0.5 mg/kg cocaine injections delivered over 5 s under a FR schedule of reinforcement, before being divided into groups self-administering cocaine delivered over either 5 or 90 s for 1 hour (h)/session. To assess potential differences in drug consumption, access to cocaine was increased to 6 h/session. To assess differences in motivation for cocaine, drug self-administration was determined under a PR schedule of reinforcement both as a function of dose and infusion rate. When animals were given access to i.v. cocaine for 1 h/session, the infusion speed did not influence drug consumption. However, when access to the drug was prolonged to 6 h/session, all animals augmented their drug intake, though the increase was greater in animals self-administering the drug delivered more rapidly (over 5 vs. 90 s). The speed of drug delivery also influenced the motivation for cocaine. Under PR conditions, the dose response curve for the number of self-administered infusions was shifted upward in the 5-s animals relative to those in the 90-s group. Moreover, qualitative differences were observed in cocaine intake under PR conditions. Whereas the intake of rats self-administering cocaine delivered over 5 s was dose-dependent, drug consumption in rats injecting the drug over 90 s did not vary with the dose. Finally, rats self-administering 0.5 mg/kg cocaine infusions delivered over 5 s took more cocaine than the rats receiving it over 90 s, regardless of whether cocaine was delivered over 5 or 90 s during PR testing. Thus, our results show that increasing the speed at which cocaine is delivered to the brain leads to greater drug intake and increased willingness to expend effort to obtain the drug, two important symptoms of addiction.

Beaucoup de personnes consomment des drogues d’abus de façon récréative ou expérimentale dans leur vie, mais peu d’entre elles développent une toxicomanie. Nous avons exploré, chez le rat, deux facteurs impliqués dans la transition vers la toxicomanie, soit la vitesse à laquelle la drogue parvient au cerveau et le fait d’être sous traitement antipsychotique. Dans une première étude, notre objectif était de déterminer si augmenter la vitesse de livraison de la cocaïne (0.5 mg/kg) par auto-administration intraveineuse (i.v.; livrée en 5 secondes dans un groupe versus 90 secondes dans l’autre) mènerait à une plus grande consommation de celle-ci lors d’un accès prolongé (6 h/j versus 1 h/j), et à une plus grande motivation à obtenir la drogue telle que mesurée sous un ratio de renforcement progressif à une vitesse différente (10 secondes). Nous avons trouvé que le groupe 5 s consommait plus de cocaïne que le groupe 90 s en accès prolongé, mais aussi en accès limité. Cependant, la motivation des deux groupes était la même à la vitesse de 10 s, ainsi qu’à leurs vitesses initiales. Nous pensons que ceci peut être dû à une forme de plasticité du système méso-cortico-limbique survenue suite à l’auto-administration en accès prolongé en conjonction avec l’augmentation de consommation, chez les deux groupes, rendant impossible une distinction de leur motivation. Dans une deuxième série d’études nous avons émis l’hypothèse que l’antipsychotique typique, halopéridol (HAL, 0.5 mg/kg/j), et non l’atypique, aripiprazole (ARI, 1 mg/kg/j), un modulateur dopaminergique, induirait une augmentation de la poursuite de récompense conditionnée (RC) et de la locomotion (LOCO) en réponse à l’amphétamine (AMPH). Cependant, nous avons trouvé une augmentation chez le groupe HAL, mais non ARI, de la réponse RC, trois semaines, mais non une semaine post traitement, ainsi qu’une augmentation de la LOCO, chez le groupe HAL, mais non ARI, une semaine mais non trois semaines post traitement. L’incohérence des résultats entre les deux tests (RC et LOCO) rend leur interprétation difficile. Ces études restent à être explorées d’avantage afin de pouvoir en tirer des conclusions plus éclairées quant à l’impact de la vitesse d’administration de la cocaïne et du traitement antipsychotique sur le développement d’une toxicomanie. / Many people take drugs of abuse on a recreational or experimental basis in their lifetime, but few develop an addiction. We explored, in the rat, two factors involved in the transition to addiction: the speed at which the drug reaches the brain, and antipsychotic treatment. In the first study, our objective was to determine if increasing the speed of intra-venous (i.v.) delivery of cocaine (0.5 mg/kg) through i.v. self administration (delivered in 5 seconds in one group versus 90 seconds in the other) would lead to greater consumption with long access to the drug (6 hours/ day versus 1hr/day) and if the motivation to obtain the drug, as measured by a progressive ratio schedule would also be greater at a different speed (10 seconds). We have found that the 5 s group had a greater consumption than the 90 s group, in long access, but also in short access. However, the motivation of the two groups did not differ at the speed of 10 s, nor at their initial speeds. We suggest that this might be due to a form of plasticity of the mesocorticolimbic system, following the extended self-administration access, in both groups, in conjunction with the escalation in consumption, thus making it impossible to distinguish their motivation. In a second study series, we hypothesised that the typical antipsychotic, haloperidol (HAL, 0.5mg/kg/d), but not the atypical, aripiprazole (ARI, 1mg/kg/d), would increase the pursuit of conditioned reward (CR; here sound and tone) and locomotion (LOCO) in response to amphetamine (AMPH). We found an increase in the CR response, in the HAL group, but not the ARI group, three weeks, but not one week, post treatment, as well as an increase in the LOCO, in the HAL group, but not in the ARI group, one week but not three weeks post treatment. The incoherence of the results from the two tests (CR and LOCO) renders their interpretation difficult. These studies remain to be explored more thoroughly so as to obtain more enlightened conclusions as to the influence of speed of administration and antipsychotic treatment on addiction development.

Rationale: Peak initiation of smoking occurs during adolescence and early onset of smoking is associated with a reduced probability of quitting and greater risk of relapse compared to later onset. Considering the epidemiological evidence, adolescents may exhibit a unique biological susceptibility to nicotine taking, in addition to the behavioural and psychosocial factors known to influence adolescent smoking. Objectives: The current series of experiments, using a rat model of adolescent nicotine taking, was designed to investigate age differences in the processes involved in the acquisition and maintenance of nicotine taking that might account for the elevated initiation rates of smoking during adolescence. Methods: We first investigated age differences in the neural response to acute nicotine administration using c-fos mRNA expression. We then examined age differences in the rewarding and aversive effects of nicotine in the conditioned place preference (CPP) and conditioned taste avoidance (CTA) paradigms, respectively. The direct reinforcing effects of nicotine were tested in adolescent and adult rats under a variety of reinforcement schedules in the operant intravenous self-administration paradigm; extinction and nicotine priming-induced reinstatement were also examined. Finally, age differences in nicotine withdrawal precipitated by mecamylamine were assessed. Results: Nicotine had greater activational effects on c-fos mRNA expression in reward-related neural substrates of adolescent compared to adult brain. Adolescent rats were also more sensitive to the rewarding effects of nicotine (CPP) yet less sensitive to its aversive effects (CTA) compared to adult rats. Nicotine was equally reinforcing in adolescents and adults self-administering under simple reinforcement schedules, but adults were more motivated to obtain nicotine under higher reinforcement schedules. Adults were more resistant to extinction, yet both age groups demonstrated similar priming-induced reinstatement of nicotine seeking. Under spontaneous acquisition conditions, adults were more sensitive to the reinforcing effects of a low nicotine infusion dose. The aversive effects of nicotine withdrawal were also more prominent in adults compared to adolescents. Conclusions: These findings have important implications since they demonstrate a unique susceptibility to the conditioned rewarding effects of nicotine that would promote acquisition of smoking behaviour during adolescence, whereas adults may be more vulnerable to processes involved in its maintenance.

La plasticité cérébrale pathologique qui se met en place en réponse à l'administration répétée de drogue nécessite des modifications de l’expression des gènes, au moyen,entre autres, de mécanismes épigénétiques tels que la méthylation de l’ADN. Dans ces travaux, nous avons montré que l’inhibition des ADN méthyl transférases par la 5-aza-2’-désoxycytidine augmentait les propriétés renforçantes de la cocaïne dans un protocole d’auto-administration intraveineuse, et ce, sans affecter la motivation des rats pour la cocaïne, ni la réactivation du comportement de recherche après une période de sevrage.L’analyse du méthylome dans le cortex préfrontal médian nous a permis de caractériser près de 190000 régions génomiques différentiellement méthylées suite au traitement par la cocaïne, en association ou non avec la 5-aza-2’-désoxycytidine. Nous avons sélectionné une vingtaine de régions situées soit dans les promoteurs soit au sein de gènes participant à la plasticité neuronale. L’analyse de la transcription de ces gènes a permis, pour certains d’entre eux, de corréler les variations de méthylation avec celles d’expression, comme dans le cas du gène Hdac2. / Repeated drug administration lead to pathological brain plasticity that requires modifications of gene expression through, among others, epigenetic mechanisms such DNA methylation. Here, we showed that DNA methyltransferases inhibitors such 5-aza-2’-deoxycytidine increase reinforcing properties of cocaine in an intravenous self administration paradigm without affecting the motivation of rats for the drug, nor drug seeking after withdrawal. The analysis of the methylome in the medial prefrontal cortex allowed us to identify approximatively 190000 differentially methylated genomic regions in response to cocaine treatment, in association or not with 5-aza-2’-deoxycytidine. We selected around twenty regions within promoters or body of genes known to participate in neuronal plasticity. The study of the transcription of these genes permitted for some of them to correlate the modifications of the DNA methylation with the modifications of the expression, like, for example, in the case of the gene Hdac2.

The thesis is concerned with the analysis of the option of drawing financial means from the European Union's funds to finance the development activities of municipalities. Thanks to the membership of the Czech Republic in the European Union, the municipalities may draw the subsidies to increase not only their own standard of living, but also of the whole region. After classifying the basic terms focused on the public administration, the municipality budget is introduced in more detail as well as the options for subsidies on various levels of public administration, especially through the structural funds of the European Union. The practical part of the thesis makes a more detailed analysis of the budget of the Boží Dar municipality between 2006 and 2012, including the interview survey-based assessment of the impact of implemented projects on the whole municipality as well as the businesses there.

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Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / Multiple lines of High Alcohol Preferring (HAP) mice were selectively bred for their intake of 10% ethanol (v/v) during 24-h daily access over a four-week period, with the highest drinking lines exhibiting intakes in excess of 20 g/kg/day. Drinking rhythms and corresponding blood ethanol concentrations (BEC) of the highest drinking HAP lines to those of the C57BL/6J (B6) inbred strain. Adult male and female crossed HAP (cHAP), HAP1 and B6 mice had free-choice access to 10% ethanol and water for 3 weeks prior to bi-hourly assessments of intake throughout the dark portion of a reverse 12:12 light dark cycle. In another cohort of cHAP mice, the same procedure was used to assess bi-hourly ethanol intake, and blood samples were taken across the day to look at the pattern of accumulation in these mice. Finally, considering the high level of intake by cHAP mice, we were interested in assessing whether metabolic and functional tolerance develop following chronic free-choice access, which were assessed using 2.0 and 1.75 g/kg challenge doses of 20% ethanol, respectively. cHAP and HAP1 mice maintained an excessive level of intake throughout the dark portion of the cycle, accumulating mean BEC levels of 261.5 + 18.09 and 217.9 + 25.02 mg/dl at 7-8 hours following lights off, respectively. B6 mice drank comparatively modestly, and did not accumulate high BEC levels (53.63 + 8.15 mg/dl). In the cHAP cohort, mean BECs were 112.47 + 19.91 at 2 hours after lights off, 189.00 + 27.40 at 6 hours after lights off, 193.80 + 29.66 at 10 hours after lights off, and 89.68 + 22.19 at 2 hours after lights on. Further, following 3 weeks of ethanol access, cHAP mice had a faster rate of ethanol metabolism and fewer hind slips than water-only exposed mice (ps < .05). In conclusion, the excessive free-choice drinking demonstrated by the HAP1 and cHAP lines, as well as the pattern of sustained high BECs in cHAP mice, challenge the notion that rodents will not reliably and voluntarily sustain ethanol intake at pharmacologically relevant levels. These results suggest that the highest drinking HAP lines may provide a unique opportunity for modeling the excessive intake that has been observed in alcohol-dependent individuals. Further, we observed that cHAP mice develop both metabolic and functional tolerance to the ataxic effects of ethanol following 3 weeks of free-choice access. Together, these findings support HAP mice as translational rodent model of alcoholism, and provide rationale for exploration of the predisposing factors for excessive consumption, as well as the development of physiological, behavioral, and toxicological outcomes following alcohol exposure.