L'alcool (EtOH) est une des substances d'abus les plus consommées en France chez les adolescents comme chez les adultes. La consommation d'EtOH induit des déficits mnésiques en perturbant les phénomènes de plasticité synaptique de type potentialisation à long terme (PLT) et dépression à long terme (DLT) dépendants du récepteur NMDA (PLTNMDA et DLTNMDA), et qui constituent la base cellulaire des apprentissages et de la mémoire, notamment au niveau de l'hippocampe. La composition en sous-unités GluN2A et GluN2B du récepteur NMDA peut influencer l'induction de ces deux formes de plasticité synaptique selon le modèle théorique de Bienenstock et al. (1982). De plus, la plasticité synaptique est sous l'influence de mécanismes épigénétiques et/ou de facteurs de transcription. A l'heure actuelle, les mécanismes cellulaires qui sous-tendent la perturbation de la plasticité synaptique suite à la consommation d'EtOH demeurent mal compris. Durant ma thèse, j'ai testé l'hypothèse que les perturbations de la plasticité synaptique dépendante du NMDA impliqueraient une modulation des sous-unités GluN2A et GluN2B dans un modèle de binge drinking-like chez le rat jeune adulte et dans un modèle d'alcoolisation chronique chez des souris adultes. Afin de comprendre les mécanismes sous-tendant ces perturbations, j’ai étudié l'implication des facteurs épigénétiques et le rôle d'un facteur de transcription de la famille des heat shock factor, HSF2. Pour cela, j'ai utilisé la technique d'enregistrement de potentiel de champs somatique et dendritique (potentiel postsynaptique excitateur NMDA ; PPSE-NMDA) dans l'aire CA1 de tranches d'hippocampe. De manière intéressante, nos résultats montrent que les deux types d'alcoolisation, aigue et chronique, augmentent la sensibilité du PPSE-NMDA à un antagoniste de la sous-unité GluN2B alors que la sensibilité à l'antagoniste de la sous-unité GluN2A diminue. Chez le rat jeune adulte, ces modifications sont accompagnées d'une forte réduction de la DLTNMDA et d'un déficit d'apprentissage (test de reconnaissance de nouvel objet). Dans ce modèle, l'inhibition de l'activité des enzymes HDACs, responsables de la désacétylation des histones, prévient l'ensemble des effets de l’EtOH (sensibilité pharmacologique du PPSE-NMDA, DLTNMDA et apprentissage). Concernant HSF2 et avant toute alcoolisation, des souris adultes hsf-/- présentent une absence de DLTNMDA accompagnée d'une plus grande sensibilité du PPSE-NMDA à un antagoniste GluN2B comparé à des souris sauvages. L'exposition chronique à l'EtOH induit chez les souris sauvages, une abolition de la DLTNMDA accompagnée d'une augmentation de la sensibilité du PPSE-NMDA à un antagoniste GluN2B et à une diminution de la sensibilité de ce signal à un antagoniste GluN2A. En revanche, les souris hsf-/- ne présentent aucune de ces modifications. Ainsi, l'ensemble de mes travaux de thèse montre que quel que soit le type d'alcoolisation, aigue ou chronique, mais aussi l'espèce animale utilisée, rat ou souris, l'EtOH induit des adaptations du réseau hippocampique qui consiste en une augmentation de la sensibilité du PPSE-NMDA à un antagoniste GluN2B et en une diminution de sa sensibilité à un antagoniste GluN2A ; modifications qui accompagnent une abolition de la DLT. Cette réponse globale à l'EtOH mettrait en jeu des facteurs épigénétiques modulant l'état d'acétylation de l'ADN et des facteurs transcriptionnels de type heat shock / Alcohol (EtOH) remains one of the most consumed substances of abuse in France among adolescents and adults EtOH consumption, inducing learning deficits through disturbances of the NMDA-dependent form of synaptic plasticity (long term potentiation, LTP and long-term depression, LTD), the cellular signal responsible for learning and memory, notably into the hippocampus, involved in memory formation in mammals. Importantly, induction of NMDA-dependent synaptic plasticity relies on the subunit composition of the NMDA receptor (GluN2A and GluN2B) while mechanisms of genome regulation such as epigenetic or some transcription factors may have important role in determining the quality of synaptic plasticity signals. However, the molecular mechanisms by which EtOH disrupts NMDA-dependent synaptic plasticity are still unclear. During my thesis work, I tested the hypothesis that NMDA-dependent synaptic plasticity is disrupted by EtOH through the modulation of the involvement of GluN2B and GluN2A subunits of the receptor whatever the type of EtOH exposure, either acute in young adult (binge-drinking like model) rodents or chronic in adult rodents. I further tested the involvement of epigenetic and the role of HSF2, a transcription factor in the modifications induced by EtOH. Using pharmacological tools and field potential recordings in CA1 area of hippocampal slices from adolescent rats and adult mice, I found that both acute and chronic ethanol exposure increased field NMDA excitatory post synaptic potential (fNMDA-EPSP) sensitivity to a GluN2B antagonist while sensitivity to GluN2A antagonist was decreased. In adolescent rats, these modifications were accompanied with a lower LTD without affecting LTP and with memory impairment. Interestingly, inhibition of enzymes responsible for chromatin deacetylation (HDAC) in binge like adolescent rat model, prevents the EtOH effects in learning performance associated with a correction of the GluN2A/GluN2B balance and LTD. Concerning the role of HSF2, I found that before chronic EtOH consumption, fNMDA-EPSPs of HSF2 KO adult mice lack LTD and showed the opposite sensitivity to GluN2A and GluN2B antagonists compared to WT mice. Chronic EtOH exposure in HSF2 KO mice induced different adaptations than in WT animals. Altogether, my thesis work show that, 1) regardless the type of EtOH exposure, the hippocampus neuronal network adapt via changes in the balance between GluN2A and GluN2B subunits leading to LTD reduction and learning impairment; 2) these EtOH-induced changes in fNMDA-EPSPs involved epigenetic processes and 3) some transcription factors, affecting basal conditions of the role for GluN2A/GluN2B balance determines the capacity to respond to EtOH exposure

Les histones désacétylases HDAC1 et HDAC2 catalysent le retrait d’un groupement acétyle de résidus lysine, dans des protéines histones et non-histones. Les HDAC contrôlent la prolifération, la mort et la différenciation cellulaire. Des propriétés anti-inflammatoires et anti-tumorales ont été attribuées à des inhibiteurs contre les HDAC (HDACi), notamment dans les cellules épithéliales intestinales (CEI). Nous supposons que différents niveaux de HDAC1 ou HDAC2 dans les CEI induisent différentes réponses dans le maintien de l’homéostasie intestinale. Nous avons donc généré des souris hétérozygotes avec un seul allèle de Hdac1 ou Hdac2 dans le contexte de la délétion de l’autre. Les résultats indiquent que les souris Hdac1-/-;Hdac2+/- Villine-Cre présentent un phénotype similaire à celui d’un double mutant, à savoir des défauts d'architecture dans le jéjunum et le côlon, de la dysplasie et hyperplasie, une réduction du nombre de cellules à mucus, mais sans modification du nombre de cellules de Paneth et de la perméabilité épithéliale. Un allèle de Hdac2 n'est donc pas suffisant pour maintenir une homéostasie normale en l'absence de Hdac1. Nous avons aussi vérifié l’effet de la délétion de Hdac1 et Hdac2 à l’âge adulte dans le modèle inductible AhCre. Dans ce contexte, la perte de Hdac1 et Hdac2 entraîne une mortalité accrue après 8 jours, avec un arrêt de prolifération et l’induction de dommages à l’ADN. Nous avons alors exploré l’impact moléculaire de la perte des deux Hdac dans les CEI par une approche protéomique et transcriptomique. Nous avons observé des changements notables dans plusieurs voies de signalisation, associées à la prolifération, à des mécanismes de stress, au métabolisme, surtout lipidique. Ces changements sont en partie régulés post-traductionnellement. Bien que très instructifs, les modèles in vivo ne permettent pas de déterminer si les modifications de l’expression des gènes observées sans Hdac1 et/ou Hdac2 sont intrinsèques aux CEI ou si ces changements dépendent de signaux extrinsèques de la muqueuse ou de la lumière intestinale. Nous avons donc établi des cultures d’entéroïdes à partir de la crypte intestinale, ce qui permet la croissance, l'expansion et la différenciation des CEI progénitrices, sans l’influence de l’environnement. Nous avons entrepris des analyses protéomiques de type SILAC, suite à une inhibition pharmacologique des HDAC de type I, le CI994, ou suite à une délétion génétique de Hdac1 ou Hdac2. L’inhibition pharmacologique entraine un arrêt de prolifération associé à une différenciation altérée en faveur des cellules absorbantes, rappelant le modèle murin sans Hdac1 et Hdac2. Les voies liées à la réplication de l’ADN et au cycle cellulaire sont diminuées. Même si la perte de Hdac1 ou Hdac2 n’affecte pas notablement la croissance et la différenciation des entéroïdes, des voies associées au métabolisme et aux réponses à l’environnement sont augmentées. Au contraire, des entéroïdes sans Hdac1 et Hdac2 ne croissent pas en culture et dégénèrent en moins de 3 jours. Ceci suggère que l’environnement mucosal pourrait soutenir les CEI Hdac1-/-;Hdac2-/- de la niche épithéliale in vivo. Nos données suggèrent que des variations intrinsèques ou extrinsèques de l'activité de HDAC1 et HDAC2 modifient la réponse des CEI à l’environnement et entraînent des perturbations de l'homéostasie intestinale.

The symptoms of schizophrenia have been categorized into three subsets including positive, negative, and cognitive symptoms. Although atypical antipsychotic use has shown promising reduction in positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia, such as hallucination, delusions and flat affect, the cognitive subset of symptoms remains and has an adverse impact on those affected. Chronic treatment with the atypical/secondary antipsychotic clozapine is one example that has ameliorated hallucinations and delusions but results in cognitive memory deficits. When chronically given in conjunction with the HDAC inhibitor, SAHA, the cognitive memory deficits of mouse models decline. HDAC2KO mice were bred and used in chronic treatments with either vehicle or SAHA and compared to WT mice, in order to analyze whether differential gene expression was occurring in an HDAC2 dependent manner. The expression of various genes involved in brain function were evaluated using RT-qPCR to determine potential differential regulation. The results showed differential expression of the following genes: Abhd16a, Gbf1, Itch, and Ube2g1. These genes are all involved in various neuronal functions.

Schizophrenia is a chronic mental disorder affecting millions worldwide. It has no known cure. Current pharmaceutical treatments have shown efficacy in only one of the three symptom clusters of schizophrenia, providing little or no benefit in the other two. Furthermore, the current standard-of-care drugs, known as atypical antipsychotics, carry risks of severe side effects affecting multiple body systems. Most patients opt to discontinue drug therapy within two years of initiation due to lack of efficacy and/or preponderance of adverse effects. Previous findings have shown that chronic usage of atypical antipsychotics causes a 5-HT2A-dependent upregulation of histone deacetylase 2 (HDAC2), which in turn leads to downregulation of metabotropic glutamate receptor 2 (mGluR2), a G protein-coupled receptor with an important role in synaptic plasticity. The present study aims to characterize the extent to which this downregulation leads to specific functional outcomes, and in doing so, may help identify new targets for more effective treatment of schizophrenia.

京都大学 / 新制・論文博士 / 博士(医科学) / 乙第13503号 / 論医科博第9号 / 新制||医科||10(附属図書館) / (主査)教授 林 康紀, 教授 髙橋 良輔, 教授 井上 治久 / 学位規則第4条第2項該当 / Doctor of Medical Science / Kyoto University / DFAM

La plasticité cérébrale pathologique qui se met en place en réponse à l'administration répétée de drogue nécessite des modifications de l’expression des gènes, au moyen,entre autres, de mécanismes épigénétiques tels que la méthylation de l’ADN. Dans ces travaux, nous avons montré que l’inhibition des ADN méthyl transférases par la 5-aza-2’-désoxycytidine augmentait les propriétés renforçantes de la cocaïne dans un protocole d’auto-administration intraveineuse, et ce, sans affecter la motivation des rats pour la cocaïne, ni la réactivation du comportement de recherche après une période de sevrage.L’analyse du méthylome dans le cortex préfrontal médian nous a permis de caractériser près de 190000 régions génomiques différentiellement méthylées suite au traitement par la cocaïne, en association ou non avec la 5-aza-2’-désoxycytidine. Nous avons sélectionné une vingtaine de régions situées soit dans les promoteurs soit au sein de gènes participant à la plasticité neuronale. L’analyse de la transcription de ces gènes a permis, pour certains d’entre eux, de corréler les variations de méthylation avec celles d’expression, comme dans le cas du gène Hdac2. / Repeated drug administration lead to pathological brain plasticity that requires modifications of gene expression through, among others, epigenetic mechanisms such DNA methylation. Here, we showed that DNA methyltransferases inhibitors such 5-aza-2’-deoxycytidine increase reinforcing properties of cocaine in an intravenous self administration paradigm without affecting the motivation of rats for the drug, nor drug seeking after withdrawal. The analysis of the methylome in the medial prefrontal cortex allowed us to identify approximatively 190000 differentially methylated genomic regions in response to cocaine treatment, in association or not with 5-aza-2’-deoxycytidine. We selected around twenty regions within promoters or body of genes known to participate in neuronal plasticity. The study of the transcription of these genes permitted for some of them to correlate the modifications of the DNA methylation with the modifications of the expression, like, for example, in the case of the gene Hdac2.

O envelhecimento da população mundial aumentou o interesse na busca pelos mecanismos fisiológicos e bioquímicos envolvidos no processo do envelhecimento saudável e por estratégias preventivas e terapêuticas de doenças relacionadas à idade. O envelhecimento cerebral alterou a atividade global de histona desacetilases (HDAC), enzima envolvida nos níveis de acetilação de histonas, marca epigenética relacionada com a expressão gênica. Nosso grupo de pesquisa demonstrou que o protocolo de exercício físico diário em esteira reduziu a atividade global da HDAC no córtex frontal imediatamente e 1 hora após a última sessão de treino. Assim, é de interesse elucidar as isoformas de HDAC envolvidas no processo de envelhecimento e no efeito do exercício físico. O exercício físico voluntário aumenta os níveis do Fator Neurotrófico Derivado do Encéfalo (BDNF) por mecanismos epigenéticos, no entanto, o impacto do exercício forçado parece ser contraditório. Nossos objetivos foram avaliar os efeitos do envelhecimento e do exercício de corrida sobre os níveis de HDAC2 e de BDNF em córtex pré-frontal de ratos Wistar. Para isso, utilizamos ratos Wistar machos com 3 e 20 meses de idade. Os animais do grupo exercitado foram submetidos ao protocolo diário de exercício físico moderado em esteira por 14 dias. No 13° dia, os animais foram submetidos à tarefa da esquiva inibitória (treino) e, no 14° dia, 30 minutos após a última sessão de exercício físico, foi realizado o teste do paradigma da esquiva inibitória. Após 30 minutos do teste na esquiva inibitória (uma hora após a última sessão de exercício), os córtices foram obtidos para os ensaios bioquímicos. Os níveis da HDAC2 foram maiores em córtices de animais envelhecidos. Ainda, foi observada uma correlação negativa entre o conteúdo da HDAC2 e o desempenho no teste de memória aversiva (esquiva inibitória). O exercício físico em esteira não alterou os níveis de HDAC2 em nenhuma das idades testadas. O envelhecimento e o exercício físico em esteira não alteraram os níveis de BDNF. Nossos dados sugerem que os altos níveis de HDAC2 estão envolvidos com o pior desempenho de animais envelhecidos na memória aversiva e que esta isoenzima não está relacionada aos efeitos epigenéticos do exercício físico em córtex pré-frontal. / Increasing attention has been paid to study the physiological and biochemical mechanisms of healthy aging process as well to seek therapeutic and protective strategies for age-related neurodegenerative diseases, since the aging population is growing. Epigenetic marks related to gene expression has been involved in aging brain process; increases in global histone desacetylase (HDAC) activity, enzyme involved with histone acetylation levels, has been found in aged brain areas. Our research group demonstrated that daily treadmill exercise protocol reduced global HDAC activity in frontal cortex immediately and 1hr after the last training session. The role of HDAC isoforms in aging process and exercise effects still needs to be elucidated. Taken that a specific HDAC isoform, HDAC2, has been involved with formation of hippocampus-dependent memory, the involvement of HDAC2 in aging process and exercise effects must be considered. Besides, it was described that voluntary exercise increases the levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) through epigenetic mechanisms; while the forced exercise effects on BDNF levels seem be contradictory. Our aim was to evaluate the aging and exercise effects on HDAC2 and BDNF levels in prefrontal cortices of Wistar rats. Young adult and age male Wistar rats were submitted to a daily moderate treadmill exercise protocol (20 min/day during 14 days). The rats were assigned to sedentary and exercise groups. Single-trial step-down inhibitory avoidance (IA) conditioning was employed as an aversive memory paradigm. In the training trial (IA), rats were placed on a platform and immediately after stepping down on the grid received a footshock prior to removal from the apparatus. The test trial took place 24 hours after the training trial. Prefrontal cortices were obtained thirty minutes after inhibitory avoidance test, what was 1 hour after the last training session of exercise. HDAC2 levels were increased in cortices of aged rats. Moreover, a negative correlation was observed between HDAC2 content and aversive memory performance evaluated by inhibitory avoidance. Treadmill exercise did not alter the HDAC2 levels in any evaluated age. Aging process and treadmill exercise were unable to alter BDNF levels. Our results suggest that the age-related memory impairment may be associated with the increased HDAC2 levels.

O envelhecimento da população mundial aumentou o interesse na busca pelos mecanismos fisiológicos e bioquímicos envolvidos no processo do envelhecimento saudável e por estratégias preventivas e terapêuticas de doenças relacionadas à idade. O envelhecimento cerebral alterou a atividade global de histona desacetilases (HDAC), enzima envolvida nos níveis de acetilação de histonas, marca epigenética relacionada com a expressão gênica. Nosso grupo de pesquisa demonstrou que o protocolo de exercício físico diário em esteira reduziu a atividade global da HDAC no córtex frontal imediatamente e 1 hora após a última sessão de treino. Assim, é de interesse elucidar as isoformas de HDAC envolvidas no processo de envelhecimento e no efeito do exercício físico. O exercício físico voluntário aumenta os níveis do Fator Neurotrófico Derivado do Encéfalo (BDNF) por mecanismos epigenéticos, no entanto, o impacto do exercício forçado parece ser contraditório. Nossos objetivos foram avaliar os efeitos do envelhecimento e do exercício de corrida sobre os níveis de HDAC2 e de BDNF em córtex pré-frontal de ratos Wistar. Para isso, utilizamos ratos Wistar machos com 3 e 20 meses de idade. Os animais do grupo exercitado foram submetidos ao protocolo diário de exercício físico moderado em esteira por 14 dias. No 13° dia, os animais foram submetidos à tarefa da esquiva inibitória (treino) e, no 14° dia, 30 minutos após a última sessão de exercício físico, foi realizado o teste do paradigma da esquiva inibitória. Após 30 minutos do teste na esquiva inibitória (uma hora após a última sessão de exercício), os córtices foram obtidos para os ensaios bioquímicos. Os níveis da HDAC2 foram maiores em córtices de animais envelhecidos. Ainda, foi observada uma correlação negativa entre o conteúdo da HDAC2 e o desempenho no teste de memória aversiva (esquiva inibitória). O exercício físico em esteira não alterou os níveis de HDAC2 em nenhuma das idades testadas. O envelhecimento e o exercício físico em esteira não alteraram os níveis de BDNF. Nossos dados sugerem que os altos níveis de HDAC2 estão envolvidos com o pior desempenho de animais envelhecidos na memória aversiva e que esta isoenzima não está relacionada aos efeitos epigenéticos do exercício físico em córtex pré-frontal. / Increasing attention has been paid to study the physiological and biochemical mechanisms of healthy aging process as well to seek therapeutic and protective strategies for age-related neurodegenerative diseases, since the aging population is growing. Epigenetic marks related to gene expression has been involved in aging brain process; increases in global histone desacetylase (HDAC) activity, enzyme involved with histone acetylation levels, has been found in aged brain areas. Our research group demonstrated that daily treadmill exercise protocol reduced global HDAC activity in frontal cortex immediately and 1hr after the last training session. The role of HDAC isoforms in aging process and exercise effects still needs to be elucidated. Taken that a specific HDAC isoform, HDAC2, has been involved with formation of hippocampus-dependent memory, the involvement of HDAC2 in aging process and exercise effects must be considered. Besides, it was described that voluntary exercise increases the levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) through epigenetic mechanisms; while the forced exercise effects on BDNF levels seem be contradictory. Our aim was to evaluate the aging and exercise effects on HDAC2 and BDNF levels in prefrontal cortices of Wistar rats. Young adult and age male Wistar rats were submitted to a daily moderate treadmill exercise protocol (20 min/day during 14 days). The rats were assigned to sedentary and exercise groups. Single-trial step-down inhibitory avoidance (IA) conditioning was employed as an aversive memory paradigm. In the training trial (IA), rats were placed on a platform and immediately after stepping down on the grid received a footshock prior to removal from the apparatus. The test trial took place 24 hours after the training trial. Prefrontal cortices were obtained thirty minutes after inhibitory avoidance test, what was 1 hour after the last training session of exercise. HDAC2 levels were increased in cortices of aged rats. Moreover, a negative correlation was observed between HDAC2 content and aversive memory performance evaluated by inhibitory avoidance. Treadmill exercise did not alter the HDAC2 levels in any evaluated age. Aging process and treadmill exercise were unable to alter BDNF levels. Our results suggest that the age-related memory impairment may be associated with the increased HDAC2 levels.

O envelhecimento da população mundial aumentou o interesse na busca pelos mecanismos fisiológicos e bioquímicos envolvidos no processo do envelhecimento saudável e por estratégias preventivas e terapêuticas de doenças relacionadas à idade. O envelhecimento cerebral alterou a atividade global de histona desacetilases (HDAC), enzima envolvida nos níveis de acetilação de histonas, marca epigenética relacionada com a expressão gênica. Nosso grupo de pesquisa demonstrou que o protocolo de exercício físico diário em esteira reduziu a atividade global da HDAC no córtex frontal imediatamente e 1 hora após a última sessão de treino. Assim, é de interesse elucidar as isoformas de HDAC envolvidas no processo de envelhecimento e no efeito do exercício físico. O exercício físico voluntário aumenta os níveis do Fator Neurotrófico Derivado do Encéfalo (BDNF) por mecanismos epigenéticos, no entanto, o impacto do exercício forçado parece ser contraditório. Nossos objetivos foram avaliar os efeitos do envelhecimento e do exercício de corrida sobre os níveis de HDAC2 e de BDNF em córtex pré-frontal de ratos Wistar. Para isso, utilizamos ratos Wistar machos com 3 e 20 meses de idade. Os animais do grupo exercitado foram submetidos ao protocolo diário de exercício físico moderado em esteira por 14 dias. No 13° dia, os animais foram submetidos à tarefa da esquiva inibitória (treino) e, no 14° dia, 30 minutos após a última sessão de exercício físico, foi realizado o teste do paradigma da esquiva inibitória. Após 30 minutos do teste na esquiva inibitória (uma hora após a última sessão de exercício), os córtices foram obtidos para os ensaios bioquímicos. Os níveis da HDAC2 foram maiores em córtices de animais envelhecidos. Ainda, foi observada uma correlação negativa entre o conteúdo da HDAC2 e o desempenho no teste de memória aversiva (esquiva inibitória). O exercício físico em esteira não alterou os níveis de HDAC2 em nenhuma das idades testadas. O envelhecimento e o exercício físico em esteira não alteraram os níveis de BDNF. Nossos dados sugerem que os altos níveis de HDAC2 estão envolvidos com o pior desempenho de animais envelhecidos na memória aversiva e que esta isoenzima não está relacionada aos efeitos epigenéticos do exercício físico em córtex pré-frontal. / Increasing attention has been paid to study the physiological and biochemical mechanisms of healthy aging process as well to seek therapeutic and protective strategies for age-related neurodegenerative diseases, since the aging population is growing. Epigenetic marks related to gene expression has been involved in aging brain process; increases in global histone desacetylase (HDAC) activity, enzyme involved with histone acetylation levels, has been found in aged brain areas. Our research group demonstrated that daily treadmill exercise protocol reduced global HDAC activity in frontal cortex immediately and 1hr after the last training session. The role of HDAC isoforms in aging process and exercise effects still needs to be elucidated. Taken that a specific HDAC isoform, HDAC2, has been involved with formation of hippocampus-dependent memory, the involvement of HDAC2 in aging process and exercise effects must be considered. Besides, it was described that voluntary exercise increases the levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) through epigenetic mechanisms; while the forced exercise effects on BDNF levels seem be contradictory. Our aim was to evaluate the aging and exercise effects on HDAC2 and BDNF levels in prefrontal cortices of Wistar rats. Young adult and age male Wistar rats were submitted to a daily moderate treadmill exercise protocol (20 min/day during 14 days). The rats were assigned to sedentary and exercise groups. Single-trial step-down inhibitory avoidance (IA) conditioning was employed as an aversive memory paradigm. In the training trial (IA), rats were placed on a platform and immediately after stepping down on the grid received a footshock prior to removal from the apparatus. The test trial took place 24 hours after the training trial. Prefrontal cortices were obtained thirty minutes after inhibitory avoidance test, what was 1 hour after the last training session of exercise. HDAC2 levels were increased in cortices of aged rats. Moreover, a negative correlation was observed between HDAC2 content and aversive memory performance evaluated by inhibitory avoidance. Treadmill exercise did not alter the HDAC2 levels in any evaluated age. Aging process and treadmill exercise were unable to alter BDNF levels. Our results suggest that the age-related memory impairment may be associated with the increased HDAC2 levels.

La plasticité cérébrale est régulée de façon dynamique au cours d’une vie : atteignant des sommets au cours de l’enfance, elle est réduite chez l’adulte. Toutefois, des circonstances particulières appellent à vouloir stimuler la malléabilité du cerveau adulte : pour favoriser la réhabilitation suite à un accident vasculaire cérébral ou un traumatisme crânien, pour aider l’adaptation spécifique nécessaire pour vivre avec une nouvelle prothèse ou encore pour améliorer l’efficacité de la thérapie cognitivo-comportementale suite à un traumatisme émotionnel qui a laissé un souvenir de peur qui s’est développé en syndrome de choc post-traumatique. Toutes ces situations demandent des capacités d’adaptation et une flexibilité exceptionnelles au système nerveux central. Or, pour retrouver une plasticité cérébrale telle qu’au niveau juvénile, la littérature nous apprend qu’il faut diminuer la puissance inhibitrice générée par un type d’interneurones particuliers, ceux exprimant la parvalbumine (PV+). Les fonctions des interneurones PV+ dépendent autant de leur patron de connectivité que de l’environnement extracellulaire dans lequel ils évoluent. En effet, en innervant des centaines de neurones cibles, délivrant une forte inhibition périsomatique en formant de multiples synapses autour de leur corps cellulaire et de leurs dendrites proximales, ils ont été impliqués dans l’intégration synaptique des neurones pyramidaux et dans la synchronisation des circuits corticaux. Toute manipulation ciblant cette arborescence axonale complexe pourrait s’avérer efficace à l’augmentation de la plasticité cérébrale en diminuant l’inhibition qu’elle génère. Ainsi, comprendre la signalisation moléculaire restreignant la croissance de l’arborescence axonale et la formation de boutons fonctionnels au cours de la longue phase développementale qui caractérise les interneurones PV+ aiderait à identifier des méthodes efficaces afin d’activer cette signalisation moléculaire chez l’adulte. De plus, comprendre les régulations épigénétiques liées au développement et à la maturation structurelle et fonctionnelle des interneurones PV+ offrirait une cible de choix afin de dématurer ces circuits inhibiteurs et lever un frein sur la plasticité cérébrale adulte. Nous démontrons ici que l’expression du récepteur des neurotrophines p75NTR chez les interneurones PV+ au cours de leur développement restreint la maturation de leur arborescence axonale, autant in vitro que in vivo, ainsi que l’agglomération des filets périneuronaux, autour de leur corps cellulaire. Aussi, en utilisant une version modifiée du test de ligation de proximité, nous avons résolu une controverse et démontré que le récepteur est toujours exprimé chez les interneurones PV+ du cortex adulte. Enfin, l’activation de la signalisation via p75NTR des interneurones PV+ par son ligand proBDNF est suffisante pour déstabiliser leur connectivité et restaurer la plasticité du cortex visuel suite à une privation monoculaire. Également, l’inactivation d’un régulateur épigénétique, l’histone déacétylase Hdac2, spécifiquement chez les interneurones PV+ suffit à diminuer leur connectivité efférente ainsi que l’agglomération des filets périneuronaux autour de leurs corps cellulaire tout en augmentant la rétention de l’extinction des souvenirs de peur, témoignant d’une augmentation de la plasticité cérébrale adulte. Par le séquençage d’ARNm en cellule unique, suivi de l’hybridation in situ RNAscope, nous avons identifié le gène Acan, codant pour aggrécane, une composante protéique des filets périneuronaux, comme étant exprimé de façon autonome à la cellule par les interneurones PV+ du cortex préfrontal adulte. Enfin, nous avons démontré qu’une seule injection d’un nouvel inhibiteur spécifique pour Hdac2 avant le paradigme d’extinction suffit à augmenter la rétention des souvenirs d’extinction chez l’adulte, tout en réduisant l’expression de Acan et l’agglomération des filets périneuronaux dans le cortex préfrontal. En somme, nos travaux ont montré que le remodelage des circuits des interneurones PV+ en ciblant soit le récepteur p75NTR, soit l’histone déacétylase Hdac2, peut efficacement augmenter la plasticité cérébrale chez l’adulte. / Brain plasticity is dynamically regulated during a lifespan: it reaches a peak during juvenile age and decreases in adulthood. However, exceptional circumstances can drive the need to foster adult brain plasticity: to help rehabilitation after a stroke or a head trauma, to increase the adaptability of an individual facing a new life with a prosthetic, to improve the efficiency of cognitive behavioral therapy to cope with the indelible fear memory trace created by an emotional trauma. All these situations require exceptional adaptation capabilities and cognitive flexibility. Several studies have suggested that reducing inhibitory drive, in particular of a specific GABAergic interneuron population, the parvalbumin-expressing interneurons (PV+), could be an effective approach to recover juvenile brain plasticity, thereby increasing adult brain plasticity. PV+ interneuron functions depend on their axonal connectivity pattern as well as their specific extracellular environment. Indeed, by contacting hundreds of postsynaptic neurons and delivering a strong perisomatic inhibitory drive by forming multiple synapses on their somata and proximal dendrites, PV+ interneurons strongly regulate pyramidal cell synaptic integration and cortical circuit synchronisation. PV+ interneuron maturation is a prolonged process, which reaches plateau only after the end of adolescence, and correlates with the decline of developmentally regulated- brain plasticity. We hypothesize that manipulations specifically targeting PV+ interneuron highly complex axonal arborisation, and thus reducing their inhibitory drive, could be efficient tools to foster adult brain plasticity. Understanding the molecular signalling that restricts PV+ cell axonal arborisation growth and the formation of functional presynaptic boutons during their long developmental phase may help identifying efficient methods to activate this molecular pathway, thus reducing PV+ interneuron connectivity, in adults. In addition, understanding the epigenetic regulation of structural and functional maturation of PV+ interneurons may offer a choice target to dematurate these inhibitory circuits and lift a brake on adult brain plasticity. Here, we demonstrate that the expression levels of neurotrophin receptor p75NTR during PV+ interneurons development constrain the maturation of their connectivity as well as the perineuronal net agglomeration around their cell bodies in a cell-autonomous fashion, both in vitro and in vivo. Also, by using a modified version of the proximity ligand assay, we solve a long-standing debate by demonstrating p75NTR expression in PV+ interneurons in adult cortex. Finally, we show that promoting p75NTR signalisation in PV+ cortical interneurons by its ligand proBDNF is sufficient to destabilize their connectivity and restore cortical plasticity following monocular deprivation in the adult visual cortex. We further show that the deletion of the epigenetic regulator histone deacetylase 2 (Hdac2), specifically in PV+ interneurons, is sufficient to decrease their efferent connectivity and perineuronal net agglomeration around their cell bodies, while increasing fear extinction retention, a measure of brain plasticity. By single-cell RNA sequencing, followed by RNAscope in situ hybridization, we found that the Acan gene, which encodes for aggrecan, a critical perineuronal net protein component, is expressed cell-autonomously by PV+ interneurons in adult prefrontal cortex. Finally, we showed that a single injection of a novel Hdac2 specific inhibitor before extinction training is sufficient to increase fear extinction retention in adults, while reducing Acan expression and perineuronal net agglomeration in prefrontal cortex. In summary, our work shows that increasing remodeling of PV+ interneuron circuits by targeting either p75NTR receptor or histone deacetylase Hdac2 efficiently foster adult brain plasticity.