Le cacaoyer (Theobroma cacao, L.) est cultivé dans les tropiques humides d'Amérique latine, d'Afrique et d'Asie. Principale source de revenus d'une agriculture essentiellement familiale, les systèmes agroforestiers à base de cacaoyers fournissent de nombreux services écologiques et contribuent à la conservation de la biodiversité. Ces systèmes associent plantes ligneuses et cultures de manière simultanée, dans une gamme importante et peu décrite de richesses et de structures botaniques. Les connaissances actuelles sur leur productivité se limitent à des essais en milieu contrôlé associant un petit nombre d'espèces. Nos travaux testent l'hypothèse d'une relation de compromis entre le niveau de productivité des cacaoyers et le niveau de biodiversité hébergée par les agroforêts à base de cacaoyers. Nous caractérisons ces compromis sur un gradient de situations de production paysannes, reposant sur la structure verticale, l'intensité de gestion de la composante végétale et le contexte bio-physique des agro-systèmes étudiés. Sur un dispositif de 36 cacaoyères paysannes situées dans la région de Talamanca, Costa Rica, nous montrons que des variations significatives de la structure végétale reflètent les modes de gestion de la parcelle et affectent le rendement par cacaoyer (295 à 667g/arbre/an) mais pas le rendement en cacao (136 kg/ha/an), ni le volume végétal global (400 m3/ha). Ces variations de la structure végétale affectent peu la diversité α des peuplements de plantes associées, d'épiphytes, d'amphibiens, de reptiles, de mamifères, d'invertébrés du sol et de la litière, mais leur diversité β répond de manière contrastée à ces variations d'habitat. Les relations de compromis que nous mettons finalement en évidence entre la productivité en cacao marchand à l'hectare ou à l'arbre et les niveaux de biodiversité atteints sont de nature (linéaire, cubique, quadratique) et de tendances (négative, postive) contrastées selon le taxon considéré et remettent en cause les résultats de certains travaux récents. Nos travaux dévoilent également des situations de compromis optimales, offrant des perspectives positives pour l'intensification écologique des systèmes agroforestiers tropicaux. / Cacao (Theobroma cacao, L.) is cultivated in the humid tropics of Latin America, Africa and Asia. Cocoa-based agroforestry systems are the main source of income for smallholders' families and provide numerous ecological services and contribute to biodiversity conservation. These systems associate trees with crops simultaneously, in a wide and poorly described range of botanical and structural plant diversity. The current knowledge about their productivity is restricted to controlled trials with a low numer of associated plant species. Our work tests the hypothesis of a trade-off relationship between the level of cocoa productivity and the level of biodiversity hosted in cocoa-based agroforests. We characterize these trade-offs on a gradient of production situations, based on the vertical structure, the management intensity of the vegetal component and the bio-physical context of cocoa-based agroforests. On the base of a 36 on farm cocoa plots network located in Talamanca, Costa Rica, we show that significant variations in the vegetation vertical structure reflect farmer's management strategies and affect the cocoa yield per tree (295 to 667g/tree/year) but neither the cocoa yield per plot (136 kg/ha/year), nor the global plant volume (400 m3/ha). The variations in vegetation structure poorly affected the α-diversity of 7 plant and animal taxa, but their β-diversity gave contrasted and significant responses to habitat variations. Finally, the trade-offs relationships we display between dry cocoa productivity per hectare or per tree and the observed biodiversity levels showed contrasted forms (cubic, quadratic, linear) and tendances (positive, negative) according to the taxa considered and question results from recent publications. Our work also revealed optimal trade-off situations which offer positive prospects for the ecological intensification of tropical agroforestry systems.

La cacaoculture est aujourd'hui considérée comme un des principaux facteurs de déforestation en milieu tropical. Dans de nombreux pays, elle repose en effet sur un modèle technique peu durable de monoculture intensive impliquant le déplacement des zones de production. Souvent délaissés par la recherche en raison de leurs faibles rendements en cacao marchand, les systèmes agroforestiers à base de cacaoyer apparaissent aujourd'hui comme une alternative crédible pour faire face aux nouveaux enjeux de la cacaoculture mondiale. Au Centre-Sud du Cameroun, la cacaoculture repose en grande partie sur des cacaoyères agroforestières anciennes, ce qui pose l'hypothèse qu'un modèle de cacaoculture durable basé sur des systèmes de culture agroforestiers est possible. Notre objectif est de mieux comprendre le fonctionnement de ces systèmes agroforestiers à base de cacaoyer, à travers leurs caractéristiques, leurs évolutions et leurs déterminants, ainsi que les conditions de leur production en cacao marchand sur le long terme. Notre démarche articule à la fois une évaluation des systèmes agroforestiers complexes à l'échelle de la parcelle et une analyse compréhensive des pratiques techniques sur le temps long. La thèse repose sur un dispositif de recherche mis en place dans la région du Centre, dans trois zones de culture différenciables par leurs conditions pédo-climatiques (Bokito, Zima et Ngomedzap). Une enquête d'agriculteurs a été réalisée à grande échelle (1 171 exploitations regroupant 1 638 cacaoyères), complétée par des observations spécifiques réalisées dans un réseau de 61 cacaoyères exploitées par 40 agriculteurs. Résultats. (1) Nos résultats d'enquête, complétés par des observations spécifiques, ont confirmé la durabilité des systèmes agroforestiers à base de cacaoyer aux plans agro-écologique et socio-économique. (2) Dans la zone de transition forêt-savane, considérée comme sub-optimale pour la cacaoculture, nous avons montré que le modèle technique adopté par les agriculteurs leur permet d'installer sur savane des cacaoyères viables sur le long terme. (3) Une méthode participative de quantification de la valeur d'usage des espèces par les agriculteurs, appliquée sur le réseau d'observation, a confirmé la multifonctionnalité des systèmes agroforestiers et mesuré la place qu'y occupe la composante cacaoyère. (4) L'évaluation des peuplements cacaoyers, réalisée en adaptant la méthode de diagnostic agronomique régional aux systèmes complexes, a permis d'identifier les facteurs limitant le rendement en cacao marchand. Celui-ci s'avère étroitement lié à la structure des peuplements cacaoyers et à celle des peuplements associés. (5) Enfin, l'analyse compréhensive des pratiques des agriculteurs sur le long terme, en lien avec l'évolution technique des peuplements cacaoyers a confirmé la flexibilité des systèmes agroforestiers à base de cacaoyer. Cette flexibilité peut être traduite par des trajectoires d'évolution des pratiques et des trajectoires de structures spécifiques. Ce travail fournit une nouvelle base méthodologique pour l'analyse et l'évaluation des systèmes agroforestiers complexes. L'ensemble des résultats et des connaissances produites dans ce travail permet de formuler des propositions pour la mise au point d'un nouveau modèle technique en cacaoculture. / Cocoa cultivation is generally considered as one of the main deforestation factors in the Tropics. Indeed, in many countries it is based on a low-sustainability technical model of intensive monocrops with shifting production zones. Cocoa agroforests, which are often neglected by research due to their low fermented dried cocoa yields, now appear to be a credible alternative for taking up the new challenges facing world cocoa production. In Centre-South Cameroon, cocoa cultivation is largely based on old cocoa agroforests, which suggests that a sustainable cocoa growing model based on agroforestry systems is possible. Our aim was to more effectively understand how these cocoa agroforests function, through their characteristics, their evolution and their determinants, along with the conditions for their long-term fermented dried cocoa production. Our approach consisted of an evaluation of cocoa agroforests on a plot scale and a comprehensive analysis of technical practices over the long term. The thesis is based on an experimental design set up in the Centre region, in three growing zones that could be differentiated through their pedo climatic conditions (Bokito, Zima and Ngomedzap). A large-scale survey was undertaken (1,171 farms grouping 1,638 cocoa plantations) completed by specific observations collected in a network of 61 cocoa agroforests managed by 40 farmers. Results. (1) Our survey results, completed by specific observations, confirmed the sustainability of the cocoa agroforestry systems from an agro ecological and socio-economic viewpoint. (2) In the forest-savannah transition zone, which is considered sub-optimum for cocoa cultivation, we confirmed that the technical model adopted by the farmers enabled them to set up cocoa agroforests on savannah that were viable over the long term. (3) In the network, a participatory method applied to quantify the use value given to the species by the farmers confirmed the multi-functionality of cocoa agroforests and measured the place occupied in it by cocoa. (4) The evaluation of the cocoa tree stands, achieved by adapting the regional agronomic diagnosis method to complex systems, revealed the factors limiting cocoa yield. It was proved that cocoa yield is closely linked to the structure of the cocoa tree stand and that of the intercropped stands. (5) Lastly, a comprehensive analysis of farmer practices over the long term, in association with the evolution of the technical management of the cocoa tree stands, confirmed the flexibility of cocoa agroforestry systems. This flexibility was reflected in the evolution pathways for specific practices and structures. This work provides a new methodological basis to assess the performance of complex agroforestry systems. All the results and knowledge produced by this work make it possible to draw up proposals for developing a new technical model for cocoa growing.

As we move towards a digital based society, technology continues to improve. It is important to take advantage of this to inform and facilitate our sustainable development goals in the most cost-effective and time efficient manner. By utilising the best available technologies, not only can time savings be achieved, but scope of works can be dramatically increased, particularly with ecological data collection. This study will focus on collecting ecological data (tree species) using developing modern technologies (satellites) with the aim of reaching classification accuracies comparable with ground truthed (real life) records. The study area is in central Burkina Faso approximately 30km south of the capital and is generally described as an agroforestry parklands area. The region suffers greatly from poverty and many people are heavily dependent on the agricultural sector and subsistence farming. As these agroforestry parklands are so critical to many people’s livelihoods, it is important to assess the natural resources available within them to provide the best food security management for the people. Tree species locations were overlayed on two satellite images acquired during different stages of the annual growing periods in the agroforestry parklands of the study area. From these images, segmentation of individual tree crowns was done manually and used as the reference data for an object-based classification model, which were assessed for the classification accuracies that can be achieved. Three satellite image scenarios were assessed for classification accuracy, including two single image scenarios and a multi-imagery dataset combining both images. Results indicate that combined images perform the best in terms of overall classification accuracies, closely followed by the end of the wet season growing period. The image acquisition from the end of the dry season was quite poor in comparison, having an overall classification accuracy more than 10% lower than the other scenarios. Of the focus species assessed in this study, Azadirachta Indica was the clear loser in terms of the number of correctly classified individuals from each model scenario. All other focus species were relatively well classified achieving close to or above 60% accuracies in the multi-imagery classification scenario.

Oil palm has been considered one of the most favorable oilseeds to biodiesel production in Brazil. The crop has been cultivated in the north and northeast regions under commercial plantations and agroforestry systems. As the oil palm is a perennial crop, it is important to understand how the intensive cultivation affects the dynamic of soil organic matter in the long term. The goal of this work was to determinate the greenhouse gas emissions associated to the main production steps and the changes on soil organic carbon under oil palm plantations. Soil and greenhouse gas samples were collected in traditional production areas in Brazil. Commercial plantations derived from pasture and Amazon rain forest were selected in Pará State (Agropalma farm), while areas derived from Atlantic rain forest and agroforestry system were selected in Bahia State (Opalma farm and Lamego). At first, changes on soil carbon stocks were evaluated in the commercial plantations and agroforestry systems. The variability of soil carbon dynamics in the production areas can be explained by several aspects such as temporal and spatial variations, and prior land use. The soil carbon stocks, after corrections for differences in density and clay content, decreased till 46% in areas derived from pasture and increased 18% in an area derived from Amazon rain forest. The soil carbon stocks increased till 23% in areas derived from Atlantic rain forest and decreased 30% when agroforestry system was adopted. The soil nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions from N fertilizer application were 10 times higher in the seedlings production than in juvenile and mature plantations, however this step represents 3.8% of the plant cycle. In general, the observed greenhouse gas emissions at different stages of oil palm production are not large than other agricultural crops in Brazil. The decomposition of plant residues also contributed to greenhouse gas emissions to the atmosphere. The carbon footprint associated to oil palm production at Agropalma farm was approximately 0.7 kg CO2 equivalent per kg of crude palm oil produced, and 70% this value is associated with the management of effluent in the anaerobic ponds emitting a large amount of methane to the atmosphere. The correct treatment of the effluent can result in reductions of greenhouse gas emissions, and consequently, decreasing the carbon footprint associated to palm oil production in the Amazon region. The results founded in this study may be used to improve the biodiesel life cycle assessment derived from palm oil produced in Brazil. / A palma (dendê) tem sido apontada como uma das oleaginosas mais viáveis para a produção de biodiesel no Brasil. Esta cultura tem sido cultivada nas regiões norte e nordeste em plantios comerciais e sistemas agroflorestais. Como é uma planta perene, é importante entender como o cultivo intensivo pode alterar a dinâmica da matéria orgânica do solo a longo prazo. O objetivo deste trabalho foi determinar as emissões de gases do efeito estufa nas principais fases do sistema produtivo e as mudanças nos estoques de carbono do solo sob cultivo da palma. Amostras de solos e gases do efeito estufa foram coletadas em áreas tradicionais de produção no Brasil. No Pará (fazenda Agropalma) foram selecionadas áreas derivadas de pastagem e Floresta Amazônica, enquanto na Bahia (fazenda Opalma e Lamego) foram selecionadas áreas derivadas de Mata Atlântica. Primeiramente foram avaliadas as mudanças nos estoques de carbono do solo sob sistemas comerciais e agroflorestais de cultivo. Os resultados indicaram que a variabilidade na dinâmica do carbono do solo em áreas de plantio de palma pode ser explicada por vários fatores, como as variações temporais e espaciais, e uso da terra anterior à instalação dos palmares. Os estoques de carbono do solo, após as correções pelas diferenças na densidade e teores de argila do solo, decresceram até 46% nas áreas derivadas de pastagem e aumentaram 18% na área derivada de Floresta Amazônica. Os estoques de C do solo aumentaram até 23% nos plantios comerciais derivados de Mata Atlântica e decresceram 30% quando foi adotado o sistema agroflorestal. As emissões de óxido nitroso (N2O) pelo solo derivadas da aplicação de fertilizantes nitrogenados foram 10 vezes maiores na produção de plântulas do que nos plantios jovens e adultos, entretanto, esta fase representa apenas 3,8% do ciclo de vida da planta. De forma geral, as emissões de gases do efeito estufa nos diferentes estágios de produção não foram maiores do que para outras culturas no Brasil. A decomposição dos resíduos culturais também contribuiu para as emissões de gases do efeito estufa para a atmosfera. A pegada de carbono associada a produção do óleo de palma pela Agropalma foi aproximadamente 0,7 kg CO2 equivalente por kg de óleo produzido, dos quais 70% estão associadas ao manejo de efluentes industriais nas lagoas anaeróbicas, que emitem uma grande quantidade de metano (CH4) para a atmosfera. O manejo correto do efluente pode resultar nas reduções das emissões de gases do efeito estufa, e consequentemente, diminuir a pegada de carbono associada a produção do óleo de palma na região Amazônica. Os resultados encontrados neste estudo poderão ser usados para fazer avaliações mais complexas como a avaliação do ciclo de vida do biodiesel derivado do óleo de palma no Brasil

Since the first colonists were settled along the Transamazon highway in Eastern Brazilian Amazon, in the early 1970s, it has been hotly debated how to guarantee their livelihoods. Over time, cattle ranching became the priority option. However, with increasing awareness about the socio- environmental drawbacks of this production system, the search for less damaging production systems was intensified. Cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) based agroforestry systems present one of the most promising land use options because they conciliate attractive yields with ecosystems conservation. Independent from this, many smallholders (small-scale households) continue seeing cattle ranching as their dedication. Whether and to what degree, these perceptions and expectations are realistic is not known, as most studies concentrate on technical aspects so far. Against this backdrop, this study invested in better understanding what small-scale farmers dedicated to cacao and/or cattle can realistically expect regarding living standard of their family and the forest conservation as stability of their natural production basis. Along seven municipalities, we applied structured interviews to 95 households. As suggested by Principal Component Analysis, we used the responses about income and housing to define the economic well-being and calculate success levels for each household. We then calculated correlations and frequencies, and applied hypotheses tests (Spearman and Kruskall-Wallis). The data showed for nearly two thirds of the visited families an acceptable to good living standard (with an average income higher than 17,000 USD/year), but also, concerning weaknesses for the rest. The most relevant factors, positively related to success, were land size and level of technology. For successful households, the combination of social interactions, market niches and off-farm income showed relevancy. Cacao farmers could be as successful as cattle ranchers, regarding cacao (on suitable soils) generated at least six times higher income per hectare than cattle. When households adopted both systems the chances of success were even higher, but on the cost of more deforestation. With regards to forest conservation, agroforestry systems related to a diversification of the household economic basis, at best including the use of non-timber products of native trees, could be feasible alternatives for extensive cattle ranching. However, to diffuse such more complex production systems requires better policies and effective support grounded in a thorough institutional cooperation of multilateral stakeholders able to establish effective logistics and attractive markets for the related diverse array of products. Further studies should increase focus on the aspects of context and personal pathways of households, using complimentary descriptive methods beyond just quantitative evaluations. / Desde que os primeiros colonos foram assentados ao longo da rodovia Transamazônica, Amazônia Oriental, no início da década de 1970, se discute como garantir os meios de vida dessas famílias. Ao longo do tempo, a produção de gado se tornou a principal opção. No entanto, o aumento da preocupação com os danos ambientais promovidos pela pecuária extensiva tem chamado atenção para os sistemas agroflorestais com cacau (Theobroma cacao L.) como potencial alternativa, capaz de conciliar a produção com a conservação florestal. No entanto, agricultores familiares continuam aderindo à pecuária. Ainda existe pouco conhecimento científico para entender se, e em qual grau, essas percepções e expectativas são realísticas, pois grande parte das pesquisas têm focado em aspectos estritamente técnicos. Diante desta problemática, este estudo investigou o que os agricultores familiares, que produzem cacau e/ou gado, podem esperar em termos do padrão de vida a ser alcançado e da conservação florestal como estabilidade natural da sua base de produção. Ao longo de sete munícipios, nós aplicamos 95 entrevistas em roteiros estruturados. Conforme indicado pela Análise de Componentes Principais, usamos a renda e a moradia para definir o bem-estar econômico e calcular o nível de sucesso para cada família. Então, calculamos as correlações e frequências e aplicamos testes de hipóteses (Spearman e Kruskall-Wallis). Os resultados revelaram que aproximadamente dois terços das famílias puderam alcançar um padrão de vida em níveis aceitáveis ou bons (com renda média em torno de 17.000 dólares por ano), mas também foram destacadas dificuldades a serem consideradas. Os fatores mais relevantes, positivamente relacionados com o sucesso, foram o tamanho da terra e o nível de tecnologia. Para os agricultores bem-sucedidos, a combinação de interações sociais, nichos de mercado e renda externa demonstrou-se relevante. Produtores de cacau puderam ser tão bem-sucedidos quanto produtores de gado, considerando que o cacau (em solos favoráveis) gerou, no mínimo, seis vezes mais renda por unidade de área que o gado. Quando as famílias adotaram os dois sistemas de produção a chance de sucesso aumentou, consequentemente ao custo de maior desmatamento. Sobre a conservação florestal, os sistemas agroflorestais relacionados com a diversificação da renda familiar, no melhor dos casos incluindo o uso de produtos não-madeireiros de árvores nativas, poderia ser uma alternativa factível à pecuária extensiva. No entanto, para difundir tais sistemas produtivos mais complexos seria necessário melhores políticas e efetivo suporte fundamentado por meio de cooperações institucionais com parcerias multilaterais, capazes de estabelecer logísticas efetivas e mercados atrativos para uma diversa gama de produtos. Estudos posteriores deveriam ampliar o foco em aspectos de contexto e em trajetórias individuais, usando métodos qualitativos complementares, além de apenas avaliações quantitativas.

Amongst the diversity of taxa that occur in the Neotropics, 200 migratory bird species that breed in temperate North America can be found. Many of these populations have seen significant declines since the 1960s. The Wood Thrush, Hylocichla mustelina, is one such species. Shade coffee and other agroforestry practices show potential for benefiting migratory species, but the quality of coffee habitat and optimal habitat characteristics for Wood Thrushes remain unknown. I surveyed a spatially complex, agricultural landscape in Honduras outside the recognized winter range of the Wood Thrush and radio-tagged 46 individuals within rustic coffee farms during the winters of 2012 and 2013. I used telemetry data to calculate metrics of habitat quality based on survival and persistence while also collecting detailed vegetation measurements across the landscape and within each home-range. Mixed-effects models were used to explore the relationship of survival, transience, movement, and home-range size to habitat class and microhabitat variables. Estimates for all four habitat quality metrics fell within the range of previous studies and were significantly related to habitat attributes. Structure, edge habitat, and shade coffee played a key role determining habitat quality. The variables associated with higher habitat quality in this study suggest that rustic coffee farms have potential to support wintering wood thrush populations. However, estimates of survival may be overly optimistic in the presence of transients, transforming highly fragmented landscapes into winter sinks. This study highlights several gaps in current scientific knowledge about some of the most essential questions of Wood Thrush winter ecology.

No description available.

The agricultural sector of Andean countries like Peru and Bolivia perceives the consequences of climate change in increasing water stress due to melting glaciers and changing precipitation patterns. Therefore mainly subsistence agricultural systems are increasingly vulnerable. Traditional inhabitants of the tropical Andean region are aware of the recurrent diversity of climate related impacts and its consequences, thus livelihood strategies are based on principles of risk management. Andean farmers are nowadays applying traditional strategies in a combination of homegrown experimentation and scientific know-how to cope with and adapt to a changing climate. Understanding these adaptations has become one of the most important aspects of research into climate change impacts and vulnerability. It provides essential knowledge for developing and transferring strategies towards a sustainable management in agriculture and agroforestry systems. But there still is a lack of a comparative assessment, especially in regions with high impact of extreme climate conditions. The endogenously determined strategies, which are based on the experience of the farmers, are to be complemented by knowledge and experiences coming from outside farm-household systems and communities. In a collaborative way, this exogenous knowledge is to be placed at the disposal of local actors. The necessary network approach leads to a comprehensive involvement of local stakeholders. Therefore a participative network on climate change may work as a tool to bridge the gap between the global discourse on climate change and local action.

Krčmářová Jana 2015 Title: Forgetting traditional agricultural knowledge in modernization. Interdisciplinry historical reconstruction of Czech agroforestry. Abstract: Corresponding with the tradition of current ecological and historical anthropology the study concentrated on reconstruction of transformation of one of the key complex human ecological relationships - modernization of agriculture. The roots of the changes are placed into 17th century Britain yet during the last centuries they spread over the globe and in some cases are still spreading. The process of agriculture modernization was enlightened with analysis of its local progression in the Czech Republic and in the light of mechanisms of cultural memory.. The establishment of modern industrial agriculture was described as forgetting of contemporary used agricultural knowledge during the application of new ideal agriculture form on the contemporary agricultural ecosystem. The new form was derived from the principles of modern economy, sciences and the availability of new technologies and was pushed forward by expert and economic elites and state. The form was applied on the biocultural system-landscape cultivated in majority of cases by thousand years present locals. The dialectical relationship between the new form, its application and the...

Numerous scholars describe agroforestry as an extraordinary food production system that generates viable ecosystems and accommodates regenerative capabilities. Agroforestry may therefore be a promising solution to the future environmental challenges facing food production. This multifunctional land management system is practised in temperate and tropical regions alike, however, it exists to a remarkably limited extent in Sweden. This research points to the complexities in agricultural and forestry policy as a main barrier for wider agroforestry adoption. The foundation of inquiry is thus to analyze various Swedish legislatives and support systems that either facilitate or adverse agroforestry practice, through the lens of political ecology. The research findings derive from a qualitative study, consisting of conducted interviews with key stakeholders in Swedish agricultural and forestry policy. The study contends that a core obstacle for agroforestry development is the dualistic approach to governmental sectors, i.e. forestry and agriculture, and the lack of coordination between them, since agroforestry cannot be classified as neither . A perpetual policy prioritized towards large-volume crop yields, rapid production, large scale investments, calculative assessments and a competitive business sector is moreover identified. The research asserts that these hegemonic discourses permeating policy, consequently act as a disincentive for agroforestry adoption due to the ofttimes long implementation period, high initial investment and uncertain food market for agroforestry produce. In addition, the study illustrates that cultural expectations of landscape mainly give trees a cultural and environmental value, therein neglecting the multifunctionality of woody vegetation - which hence suggest a lack of a holistic approach to food systems. The thesis finally argues that these hegemonic discourses concerning assessment and management of land, together influence the design of state policy and farmers’ attitude towards agroforestry systems. Overall, current policy regulations portray a rather static and incomplete way of managing the dynamic symbiosis of multifunctional food systems.