Os episódios mistos em pacientes portadores de Transtorno Bipolar são descritos freqüentemente como sendo mais graves que os episódios de mania aguda. Além disso, muitos trabalhos na literatura descrevem os pacientes com TB com história de episódios mistos, como um grupo distinto clínica e demograficamente do grupo com apresentação apenas de episódios de mania pura. Os objetivos deste estudo foram comparar clinicamente episódios agudos mistos versus episódios de mania pura e comparar clínica e demograficamente pacientes que apresentaram em algum momento do seguimento clínico pelo menos um episódio misto com pacientes que apresentaram apenas mania pura. Vinte pacientes apresentando episodio de mania pura foram comparados a 29 pacientes em estado misto de acordo com os critérios do DSM-IV. Não houve diferença na duração destes episódios, presença de hospitalização e tentativas de suicídio. Na comparação dos dados demográficos, não encontramos diferenças na idade, distribuição entre os sexos, classe sócio-econômica, estado civil e anos de escolaridade. Em relação ao curso, nosso estudo mostrou que pacientes com pelo menos um estado misto apresentaram maior freqüência de tentativas de suicídio e de episódios, mais comorbidades e idade de início da doença mais precoce. Foi realizada analise multivariada através de regressão logística para a identificação das variáveis clinicas que melhor distinguem um grupo do outro. Esta analise mostrou que a presença de comorbidades e de tentativas de suicídio foram as variáveis identificadas que mais fortemente estão associadas ao diagnóstico de pacientes com estado misto. / Mixed episodes in patients with bipolar disorder (BD) have been frequently described as more severe than acute manic episodes. Moreover, many papers in the literature have described the patients with BD with history of mixed episodes as a group that is clinically and demographically distinct from the group with clinical presentation of pure manic episodes. The purposes of this study were to compare clinically acute mixed episodes with pure manic episodes and compare clinically and demographically patients that present in any moment of their clinical follow-up at least one mixed episode with patients that present only pure mania. Twenty patients with pure manic episode were compared to 29 patients with mixed episodes according to DSM-IV criteria. There were no differences in episodes duration, presence of hospitalization and suicide attempts. Comparing the demographic data, we did not find differences in age, gender distribution, socio-economic status, marital status and years of education. Regarding the course of illness, our study showed that patients with at least one mixed state presented higher frequency of suicide attempts, younger age of illness onset, more co-morbidities, and higher index of impulsivity. A multi-variate analysis was performed with logistic regression to identify the clinical variables that better distinguish one group from the other. This analysis showed that the presence of co-morbidities and suicide attempts were the identified variables that are strongly associated with the diagnosis of patients with mixed state.

INTRODUÇÃO: Os termos múltiplas comorbidades e multimorbidade são crescentes na literatura médica, trazendo e traduzindo uma nova forma de avaliar e cuidar de pacientes graves que acumulam doenças crônicas. Estudos apontam piores prognósticos para o transtorno bipolar (TB) quando associado à comorbidades específicas. Entretanto, fatores correlacionados ao número total de transtornos associados, e não a cada transtorno de forma específica, ainda não foram investigados no TB. OBJETIVOS: A finalidade deste estudo é avaliar diferentes aspectos relacionados à presença de múltiplas comorbidades psiquiátricas de Eixo I ao longo da vida em amostra de pacientes com TB. MÉTODO: Uma amostra de 294 pacientes bipolares foi investigada. Os diagnósticos de TB e das comorbidades psiquiátricas foram confirmados através entrevista clínica estruturada para transtornos de Eixo I (SCID-I) do DSM-IV. Um protocolo padrão do PROTAHBI foi aplicado para a obtenção de dados sócio-demográficos e variáveis clínicas. Os níveis de funcionamento, a qualidade de vida (QV), assim como, a presença de sintomas depressivos, ansiosos e maníacos foram avaliados através de instrumentos específicos validados na literatura. Múltiplas comorbidades foram consideradas presentes quando três ou mais diagnósticos psiquiátricos, adicionais ao TB, eram constatados. LIMITAÇÕES: Comorbidades com transtornos de Eixo II e III não foram investigadas neste estudo. RESULTADOS: A prevalência ao longo da vida para pelo menos uma comorbidade foi de 68.8% (n = 203), para duas ou três foi de 34.2% (n = 101) e para múltiplas comorbidades foi de 34.6% (n = 102). Na análise comparativa para as variáveis clínicas, diferenças correlacionadas ao número total de comorbidades foram detectadas. Um significativo impacto negativo foi verificado na avaliação do funcionamento e na QV dos pacientes com múltiplas comorbidades. CONCLUSÕES: A presença de múltiplas comorbidades psiquiátricas de Eixo I ocorre em cerca de um terço dos pacientes bipolares e revela uma maior gravidade e complexidade ao transtorno, independentemente de quais transtornos específicos co-ocorram. Questões acerca de sua adequada contemplação nos critérios de classificação diagnóstica e guidelines de tratamento também foram suscitadas. / BACKGROUND: The concepts multiple comorbidities and multimorbidity are growing in relevance in medical literature, enabling a new perspective to understand and treat patients with severe and cumulative chronic diseases. Studies report worse prognoses of bipolar disorder (BD) when associated with specific comorbidities. However, factors underlying co-occurring rather than single disorders have not been analyzed yet. OBJECTIVES: The present study aims at assessing the impact of psychiatric multiple comorbidities with Axis I disorder on bipolar patients. METHODS: A sample of 294 bipolar patients was examined. BD and comorbidities diagnoses were confirmed by means of Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis I disorders. A PROTAHBI standard protocol provided the access for the social-demographic data and clinical variables. Levels of functioning and quality of live as well as the presence of depressive, anxiety and manic symptoms were evaluated by means of proper instruments validated in medical literature. Multiple comorbidities were considered when three or more comorbid psychiatric diagnoses were verified. LIMITATIONS: Axis II and III comorbidities were not considered in this investigation. RESULTS: Lifetime prevalence of any comorbidity was 68.8% (n = 203), of one or two comorbidities was 34.2% (n = 101), and of multiples comorbidities was 34.6% (n = 102). ). In the comparative analysis of clinical variables, some differences between the groups were detected. A significant negative impact was verified when assessing functioning and quality of life of patients with multiple comorbidities. CONCLUSIONS: The presence of Axis I psychiatric comorbidities was found in one third of the bipolar patients and revealed a more severe and complex disorder, regardless of which particular disorders may co-occur. Concerns were raised about whether current medical classification systems and practice guidelines are properly addressing this issue.

A exposição a eventos traumáticos durante a infância está associada a um prejuízo na cognição, neurobiologia e morfologia cerebral. No entanto, não se sabe se o trauma está relacionado a essas mudanças em amostras que não apresentam potenciais fatores de confusão como idade avançada, cronicidade do transtorno psiquiátrico e múltiplos episódios de humor. O impacto do trauma na infância foi avaliado em duas amostras diferentes nesta tese: 1) crianças com e sem história de trauma; 2) pacientes com diagnóstico de THB logo após a recuperação do primeiro episódio de mania com e sem história de trauma na infância e controles saudáveis com e sem história de trauma na infância. Os resultados sugerem que o trauma está associado a mudanças na neurobiologia, cognição e morfologia cerebral. Crianças com trauma apresentaram aumento nos níveis de BDNF, TNF-α, IL-6 e IL-10 comparadas com crianças sem trauma. No entanto, após a exclusão de crianças com história de doença inflamatória, apenas os níveis de BDNF e TNF-α permaneceram aumentados em crianças com trauma. Na população com transtorno bipolar, a história de trauma na infância foi associada a uma diminuição no QI, atenção auditiva e memória verbal e memória de trabalho enquanto um padrão diferente foi observado nos controles saudáveis com história de abuso infantil. Pacientes com THB e trauma também apresentaram menor volume total do CC em comparação aos pacientes com THB e sem trauma, com diferenças significativas também na região anterior do CC. Por outro lado, não encontramos diferenças significativas entre o volume do CC nos pacientes com ou sem trauma em comparação aos controles saudáveis. Estes achados reforçam a extensão e gravidade do impacto negativo do trauma na infância, em diferentes etapas do desenvolvimento, afetando tanto aspectos cognitivos, como neurobiológicos e de morfologia cerebral. / Exposure to traumatic events during childhood is associated with impairment in cognition, neurobiology and brain morphology. However, it is unknown if trauma is related to these changes in samples that do not show the potential confounds of advancing age, chronicity of psychiatry disorder and multiple mood episodes. We evaluated the impact of childhood trauma in two different samples: 1) children with and without childhood trauma; 2) pacients with a BD diagnosis recently recovered from a first manic episode with and without childhood trauma and healthy controls with and without childhood trauma. The results suggest that childhood trauma is associated to changes in neurobiology, cognition and brain morphology. Children with trauma showed higher levels of BDNF, TNF-α, IL-6 e IL-10 compared to children without trauma. However, after excluding children with history of inflammatory disease, only BDNF and TNF-α levels remained increased in children with trauma. In BD patients, the childhood trauma was associated to a decreased IQ, auditory attention, verbal memory, and working memory and a different pattern was observed in healthy subjects with a history of childhood abuse. The total CC volume was found to be smaller in BD patients with trauma compared to BD patients without trauma and differences were more pronounced also in the anterior region of the CC. On the other hand, we did not find significant differences in the CC volume of patients with/without trauma compared to the healthy subjects. These findings reinforce the extent and severity of the negative impact of childhood trauma in different stages of development, affecting cognitive aspects, as well as neurobiological and brain morphology.

Background: Reported rates of bipolar syndromes are highly variable between studies because of age differences, differences in diagnostic criteria, or restriction of sampling to clinical contacts. Method: In 1395 adolescents aged 14–17 years, DSM-IV (hypo)manic episodes (manic and hypomanic episodes combined), use of mental health care, and five ordinal subcategories representing the underlying continuous score of (hypo)manic symptoms (‘mania symptom scale’) were measured at baseline and approximately 1.5, 4 and 10 years later using the Munich-Composite International Diagnostic Interview (DIA-X/M-CIDI). Results: Incidence rates (IRs) of both (hypo)manic episodes and (hypo)manic symptoms (at least one DSM-IV core symptom) were far higher (714/105 person-years and 1720/105 person-years respectively) than traditional estimates. In addition, the risk of developing (hypo)manic episodes was very low after the age of 21 years [hazard ratio (HR) 0.031, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.0050–0.19], independent of childhood disorders such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Most individuals with hypomanic and manic episodes were never in care (87% and 62% respectively) and not presenting co-morbid depressive episodes (69% and 60% respectively). The probability of mental health care increased linearly with the number of symptoms on the mania symptom scale. The incidence of the bipolar categories, in particular at the level of clinical morbidity, was strongly associated with previous childhood disorders and male sex. Conclusions: This study showed, for the first time, that experiencing (hypo)manic symptoms is a common adolescent phenomenon that infrequently predicts mental health care use. The findings suggest that the onset of bipolar disorder can be elucidated by studying the pathway from non-pathological behavioural expression to dysfunction and need for care.

A literature search, supplemented by an expert survey and selected reanalyses of existing data from epidemiological studies was performed to determine the prevalence and associated burden of bipolar I and II disorder in EU countries. Only studies using established diagnostic instruments based on DSM-III-R or DSM-IV, or ICD-10 criteria were considered. Fourteen studies from a total of 10 countries were identified. The majority of studies reported 12-month estimates of approximately 1% (range 0.5–1.1%), with little evidence of a gender difference. The cumulative lifetime incidence (two prospective-longitudinal studies) is slightly higher (1.5–2%); and when the wider range of bipolar spectrum disorders is considered estimates increased to approximately 6%. Few studies have reported separate estimates for bipolar I and II disorders. Age of first onset of bipolar disorder is most frequently reported in late adolescence and early adulthood. A high degree of concurrent and sequential comorbidity with other mental disorders and physical illnesses is common. Most studies suggest equally high or even higher levels of impairments and disabilities of bipolar disorders as compared to major depression and schizophrenia. Few data are available on treatment and health care utilization.

The aims of this study were to explore partners' experiences of living with a loved one with bipolar disorder and how they coped with these experiences. Another aim was to explore whether these individuals felt that Counselling Psychologists could play a role with care-giving tasks and their own psychological needs. Five individuals, who were currently living with, or had been living with, a partner with bipolar disorder, volunteered and participated in a semi-structured interview. These interviews were transcribed and analysed using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) as described by Smith, Flowers and Larkin (2009). A table of super-ordinate and sub-ordinate themes was created as a result of this analysis. Partners' experiences are characterised by various phases which partners could move around and between. This was referred to as the 'cycle of changing illness awareness'. This theme adds to the existing literature. As partners moved around and between these phases they experienced different emotions, employed different coping strategies and had experiences of being 'in it together' interchangeably with being 'isolated and alone'. This research concludes that partners' experiences of caring for a loved one with bipolar disorder do not follow a linear, predictable path and as a result, professionals working with caregivers need to be aware of which phases of the 'cycle of changing illness awareness' partners are in when offering interventions. The analysis also suggests that partners cope differently when their loved one is manic and depressed. However, further exploration is still needed.

No description available.

The objective of this thesis was to determine the association between exposure to parental BD during childhood and risk of mood disorder. Offspring of one parent with BD completed annual clinical assessments as part of a 16-year prospective cohort study. Clinical data in the parents from Ottawa and Halifax were mapped onto the first decade of their offspring’s life to estimate the timing, duration and severity of exposure to their illness. The duration of parental BD was associated with a 2 to 2.5 fold increased risk of any psychopathology (HR: 1.9, 95%CI: 1.0-4.0), and unipolar depression (HR: 2.6, 95%CI: 0.9-7.5), and a 7 fold increased risk of substance use disorders (HR: 7.1, 95%CI: 1.8-37.0). A longer duration of exposure to parental BD may be an important indicator of mood and non-mood psychopathology risk in offspring. This has implications for early intervention and preventive efforts in high-risk youth.

Bipolar disorders and recurrent depressions are two common psychiatric disorders with a life time prevalence of approximately 1% and 8%, respectively. Despite treatment these patients suffer from affective symptoms up to 50% of the time, resulting in lower well-being. The average life length is also reduced with 10-15 years, mainly attributable to suicide and cardiovascular disease. Increased stress is one of many factors that have been shown to be linked to an increased risk for developing affective disorders and some comorbid somatic conditions such as metabolic disturbances and cardiovascular disease. An increased stress level is known to cause hyperactivity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal-axis (HPA-axis) with increased cortisol secretion. Hyperactivity of the HPA-axis (or hypercortisolism) is one of the most replicated neurobiological finding in depression. In other stress related disorders it has however been shown that prolonged stress over long periods of time can lead to a state of low HPA-axis activity, hypocortisolism. Since persons with recurrent affective disorders such as bipolar disorder and recurrent depression are exposed to a high degree of recurrent and chronic stress it could be expected that in addition to hypercortisolism, a state of hypocortisolism could also develop in these disorders, potentially exerting an influence upon the psychological and somatic wellbeing among these patients. The major aim of this thesis was to evaluate whether hypocortisolism is related to relevant psychiatric and somatic phenotypes in recurrent affective disorders. In bipolar disorder, individuals with hypocortisolism exhibited a higher degree of depression and low quality of life compared to patients with normal HPA-axis activity. In recurrent depression, individuals with hypocortisolism exhibited shorter leukocyte telomere length than patients with normal or high HPA-axis activity, which is an indication of an accelerated aging process. In a sample of both bipolar and recurrent depression patients, hypocortisolism was associated with an increased proportion of obesity, dyslipidemia and metabolic syndrome compared with patients with normal or high HPA-axis activity. Patients with recurrent depression showed a higher occurrence of hypocortisolism than the control sample representative of the general population. Patients with bipolar disorder showed a similar occurrence of hypocortisolism as the control sample. Among bipolar disorder patients with a low degree of lifetime with lithium prophylaxis, there was an inverse correlation between age and HPA-axis activity. In contrast, among patients with a higher degree of lifetime with lithium prophylaxis as well as among the controls, there was no correlation between age and HPA-axis activity. Accordingly, hypocortisolism was most common among older patients with a low degree of lifetime with lithium prophylaxis. In conclusion, hypocortisolism in both recurrent depression and bipolar disorder was associated with multiple clinically-relevant phenotypes. Additionally it was shown for bipolar disorder patients that increasing age was a risk factor for hypocortisolism and that prophylactic lithium treatment was a protective factor. It is argued that the protective effect of lithium towards the HPA-axis is attributable to its mood-stabilizing effect, which in turn reduces the chronic stress level. These results provide new insight into the role of hypocortisolism and chronic stress in recurrent affective disorders warranting further studies and hopefully providing clues to improved treatment strategies.

Evidências sugerem o envolvimento de um estado de inflamação crônica de baixo grau na fisiopatologia do transtorno bipolar (TB). Os estudos apresentados nesta tese tiveram como objetivo explorar o papel da inflamação crônica nos mecanismos fisiopatológicos do TB através da avaliação dos níveis séricos de proteína C-reativa (PCR). A PCR é um marcador de inflamação sistêmica comumente utilizado na prática clínica, sendo considerado fator de risco para várias patologias, incluindo câncer e doença cardiovascular. O primeiro artigo, através de um estudo de meta-análise, teve como objetivo avaliar o tamanho de efeito da associação entre níveis de PCR em pacientes bipolares nas diferentes fases de humor (n=730) comparado a indivíduos controles (n=888). Pacientes bipolares apresentaram níveis de PCR significativamente elevados em comparação ao grupo controle, com moderado tamanho de efeito (effect size, ES = 0.39; 95% IC, 0.24 – 0.55; P < 0.0001). Níveis de PCR foram significativamente maiores em pacientes maníacos (ES = 0.73; 95% IC, 0.44 – 1.02; P < 0.001) e em eutímicos (ES = 0.26; 95% IC, 0.01 – 0.51; P = 0.04). O segundo artigo se propôs a revisar dados da literatura relacionados a biomarcadores periféricos potencialmente implicados na progressão do TB. Pacientes em diferentes estágios do TB apresentaram níveis alterados de marcadores de estresse oxidativo, neurotrofinas e de inflamação, incluindo a PCR, o que reforça a hipótese da inflamação crônica exercer um papel importante na fisiopatologia do TB. Em seguida, considerando a abordagem multidimensional no TB, o terceiro artigo avaliou a reatividade emocional como uma dimensão relevante para caracterizar pacientes bipolares apresentando sintomas subclínicos de humor durante a fase de remissão (N=613). Apesar de todos pacientes estarem em remissão, a maioria deles (68%) apresentou reatividade emocional anormal (hipo ou hiper-reatividade emocional). Esse estudo avaliou, também, o funcionamento psicossocial nesses pacientes e os níveis de PCR ultra-sensível como um possível marcador objetivo de hiper-reatividade emocional no TB. Os pacientes com hiper-reatividade emocional, em comparação aos pacientes com hipo- ou normal reatividade emocional, apresentaram prejuízo cognitivo e níveis de PCR significativamente mais elevados (P < 0.001). Esses resultados provêm de um estudo transversal e, portanto, conclusões sobre causalidade dessas associações não podem ser inferidas, já que outros fatores, além dos níveis de PCR, podem também contribuir para o estado inflamatório crônico observado nesses pacientes. Em suma, os resultados desta tese sugerem que a inflamação crônica de baixo grau, evidenciada pelas alterações nos níveis de PCR, parece estar implicada na fisiopatologia e na progressão do TB. Novas intervenções terapêuticas com alvo em mecanismos inflamatórios e na modulação dos níveis de PCR devem ser priorizados em estudos futuros. / Evidence suggests that chronic low-grade inflammation appears to be involved in the pathophysiology of bipolar disorder (BD). The studies presented in this thesis aimed at exploring the role of chronic inflammation in the BD pathophysiological mechanisms by assessing serum levels of C-reactive protein (CRP). CRP is a marker of low-grade inflammation widely used in clinical practice, and a risk factor for cardiovascular and malignant diseases. The first article, a meta-analysis, aimed at evaluating the effect size of the association between CRP levels in bipolar patients (n=730) compared to healthy subjects (n=888). Overall, CRP levels were significantly elevated in patients with BD versus controls (effect size, ES = 0.39; 95% CI, 0.24 to 0.55; P < .0001). CRP levels were significantly higher in manic (ES = 0.73; 95% CI, 0.44 to 1.02; P < 0.001) and euthymic (ES = 0.26; 95% CI, 0.01 to 0.51; P = 0.04). The second paper aimed at reviewing the scientific literature regarding peripheral biomarkers potentially implicated in the progression of BD. Bipolar patients within different disease’s stages presented altered levels of oxidative stress, neurotrophins and inflammatory markers, including PCR. These findings reinforce the hypothesis of the potential role of the chronic inflammation in BD pathophysiology. Regarding the multidimensional approach in BD, the third article assessed emotional reactivity as a major dimension for better characterizing remitted bipolar patients with subthreshold mood symptoms (N=613). Although all patients were in remission, most of them (68%) showed abnormal emotional reactivity (hipo- or hyper-reactivity). In addition, this study assessed the psychosocial functioning in these patients as well as the levels of high-sensitivty PCR (hsCRP) as an objective marker of emotional hyper-reactivity in BD. Patients with emotional hyper-reactivity had higher levels of PCR and cognitive impairment compared to patients with emotional hypo or normal emotional reactivity (P < 0.001). This was a crosssectional study of emotional reactivity, hsCRP levels and functional status in remitted bipolar patients, and no conclusions regarding the causality of these associations can be substantiated. Others factors could also be contributing to the chronic inflammatory state in these patients. In conclusion, the results of this thesis suggest that low-grade chronic inflammation, as evidenced by alteration in CRP levels, may be implicated in the pathophysiology as well as in the BD progression. Novel therapeutic interventions targeting inflammatory mechanisms and the modulation of CRP levels should be prioritized in future studies.