L'application du procédé SLM est limitée par la difficulté à contrôler le procédé. Son application aux céramiques est particulièrement difficile en raison de leur faible absorption au laser et de leur faible résistance au choc thermique. La maîtrise de ce procédé nécessite une compréhension complète du transfert de chaleur, de la dynamique des fluides et de la mécanique des solides. Dans ce travail, nous proposons un modèle numérique pour la simulation du procédé SLM appliqué aux céramiques. Le modèle est développé à l'échelle du cordon et avec l'hypothèse d'un lit de poudre continu. Il est basé sur la méthode level set et l'homogénéisation multiphasique, avec laquelle nous sommes capables de suivre l'évolution de l'interface gaz/matière et les transformations de phase. La simulation dévelopée permet d'étudier l'influence des propriétés du matériau et des paramètres du procédé sur la température, la forme du bain liquide, la dynamique des fluides et la mécanique des solides. En dehors de la puissance du laser et de la vitesse de balayage, l'absorption du matériau est également importante pour la thermique et la forme du bain liquide. Avec la dynamique des fluides, la forme convexe du cordon est obtenue sous tension de surface. Les gouttelettes liquides se forment lors de la fusion de la poudre et créent une instabilité du bain. Ceci entraîne une irrégularité du cordon après solidification. L'effet Marangoni, provoqué par le gradient surfacique de la tension de surface, est étudié. Son influence sur la répartition de la température, la forme du bain liquide et la régularité du cordon est évoquée. Cet effet peut lisser la surface du cordon avec ∂γ/∂T négatif. En augmentant la vitesse de balayage, la surface du cordon devient plus irrégulière. L'effet de « balling » est reproduit avec une vitesse de balayage élevée. Cela peut être utile pour trouver le régime donnant une forme de cordon régulière étant données la puissance et la vitesse du laser. Le défaut de fissuration est délétère dans la fabrication additive. L'utilisation d'un laser auxiliaire peut aider à éviter ce défaut en diminuant la contrainte de traction maximale. Le mode de fonctionnement de ce laser auxiliaire reste un sujet intéressant à étudier et quelques pistes ont été données par les simulations présentées. Le modèle est validé par la comparaison de la forme du bain liquide avec des expériences dans différentes conditions de procédé. Les simulations peuvent également révéler la tendance de variation de la surface du cordon dans certains cas. Par la simulation de la déposition de cordons multiples, l'influence de taux de recouvrement sur la surface d'une couche, la température et l'évolution de contrainte est soulignée. / The application of SLM process is limited by the difficulty of process control. Its application to ceramics is especially challengeable due to their weak absorption to laser and weak resistance to thermal shock. The mastery of this process requires a full understanding of heat transfer, fluid dynamics in melt pool and solid mechanics. In this work, we propose a numerical model for the simulation of SLM process applied to ceramics. The model is developed at the track scale and with the assumption of continuous powder bed. It is based on level set method and multiphase homogenization, with which we are able to follow the evolution of gas/material interface and phase transformation. Simulations are performed to study the influence of material properties and process parameters on temperature, melt pool shape, fluid dynamics and solid mechanics. Apart from the laser power and scanning speed, material absorption is also found to be important to the thermal behavior and the melt pool shape. With the fluid dynamics, convex shape of track cross section is achieved under surface tension. Besides that, liquid droplets collapsing formed by the melting of powder create melt pool instability when falling, thus leading to track irregularity after solidification. The Marangoni effect, caused by surface tension gradient at gas/material interface, is investigated. Its influence on temperature distribution, melt pool shape and track regularity is recognized. One interesting finding is the smoothing effect of track surface with negative ∂γ/∂T. When combine surface tension with scanning speed, track surface becomes more irregular with the increase of scanning speed. The well-known balling effect is reproduced with high scanning speed. This can be helpful to find the regime for regular track shape with given laser power and scanning speed. Cracking defect is deleterious in additive manufacturing. The use of an auxiliary laser can help to avoid this defect by decreasing the maximum tensile stress. The process mode of this auxiliary laser remains an interesting subject to be studied and some guidelines have been given by the presented simulations. The model is validated by the comparison of melt pool shape with experiments under different process conditions. Simulations can also reveal the tendency of track surface variation for certain cases. By the application to multi-track deposition, the influence of hatch distance on layer surface, temperature and stress evolution is emphasized.

[pt] O estudo do comportamento de membranas quando expostas a pressões e tensões de diverssos tipos, assim como de suas propriedades mecânicas nos últimos anos vem recebendo uma notável atenção em razão da variada aplicabilidade das membranas nas mais diversas áreas da engenharia, incluindo atuadores, robótica, sensores, aeroespacial, bioengenharia e estruturas infláveis para engenharia civil. Neste trabalho será apresentado um estudo numérico e experimental de uma membrana sujeita a uma endentação e perfuração transversalmente ao seu plano indeformado, considerando-se a presença do atrito na interface membrana-endentor, fato que torna esse estudo pioneiro nesta análise. Os estudos numéricos foram feitos no software Abaqus CAE. Os ensaios experimentais têm por objetivo comprovar os resultados numéricos e assim validá-los. Foram desenvolvidos aparatos experimentais dedicados aos ensaios pretendidos devido à ausência de equipamentos no mercado que pudessem reproduzir tais ensaios. / [en] The study of membranes behavior when subjected to pressures and tensions from all kinds, as well as their mechanical properties, is receiving a noticeable attention over the last years due to various applications of membranes on various engineering fields, including, actuators, robotics, sensors, airspace, bioengineering and inflatable structures for civil engineering. On this job will be presented a numerical and experimental study of a membrane subjected to an endentation and penetration transversally to the membrane’s undeformed plane, considering friction on the interface of the membrane and endentor, which makes this study a pioneer on this kind of analysis. The numerical studies were performed on Abaqus CAE finite element software. The experimental tests are intended to validate the numerical results. Experimental apparatus were developed especially to perform the tests done in this job.

[pt] Construção de barragens de terra é uma atividade milenar, empregada com o objetivo de atender às mais diversas necessidades humanas como o armazenamento de água, irrigação, regularização de cursos d água, geração de enregia elétrica, etc. Ao longo da história, o projeto destas obras de terra passou de conceito simples, baseados em técnicas empíricas e regras intuitivas, para as análises modernas que consideram o comportamento da barragem em suas diversas fases de vidas (construção, enchimento do reservatório, regime de plena operação), sob carregados estáticos e sísmicos, condições de contorno complexas e sofisticadas relações constitutivas dos materiais da estrutura e do maciço de fundação. Nesta trabalho a construção, primeiro enchimento do reservatório e a resposta sísmica da barragem de terra de Pomacocha, Peru, são analisados pelo método dos elementos finitos, utilizando o software ABAQUS (versus 6.3). Os campos de tensão e de deslocamentos para diversos estágios de aplicação dos carregamentos estático e sísmico são apresentados, incluindo-se histórias de deformação e de tensão para determinados pontos do corpo da barragem e do solo de fundação. / [en] Dam construction is a millenary activity, carried out with the objective of fulfilling human necessities as water supply, land irrigation, water flow regularization, electric power generation, etc. Along the history, the design of these earthworks evolved from simple concepts, based on empirical techniques and rules of thumb, to modern analyses that consider all phases of a dam s life (construction, first reservoir filling, full operation) understatic and seismic loads, as well as complex boundary conditions and sophisticated constitutive relationships for the structure itself and the foundation mass. In this work, the construction, first reservoir filling and the seismic response of the Pomacocha Dam, located in Peru, are analyzed by the finite element method using the software ABAQUS (version 6.2). At several loading stages the corresponding stress and displacement are presented as well as, for some specific points in the dam body and in the foundation soil, the characteristic stress and strain histories during the static and seismic loads.

Ces travaux présentent l'étude de transformateurs par voie acoustique, basés sur la technologie CMUT (Capacitive Micromachined Ultrasonic Transducer ), visant à développer des composants monolithiques assurant l'isolation électrique au sein de la commande des interrupteurs à semi-conducteurs. S'agissant de microsystèmes électromécaniques, les CMUTs offrent des perspectives intéressantes en terme d'intégrabilité monolithique avec les interrupteurs à semi-conducteurs. L'architecture proposée est constituée de deux transducteurs CMUTs de part et d'autre d'un substrat en silicium. Un outil de modélisation a été développé dans le but de prédire le comportement du transformateur. Des protocoles de mesure du rendement des dispositifs fabriqués ont été mis en place permettant une évaluation quantitative des performances des prototypes (un rendement de 32 % est atteint avec une marge de progression à 60 %). L'exploitation du modèle développé, et validé par les résultats de caractérisation, a permis de mettre en évidence les limites et perspectives d'amélioration de ces dispositifs. / This work is a study of CMUT (Capacitive Micromachined Ultrasonic Transduer)based acoustical transformers as a step in the development of insulating components in semiconductor switches control chain. CMUT transducers being electromechanical systems (MEMS), their monolithic integration with semiconductor switches is full of interesting perspectives . The proposed architecture consists of two CMUTs layered on each side of a silicon substrate. A computational tool was designed to predict the behaviour of the transformer. Measurement protocols of the power efficiency of the constructed transformers were set up and allowed to quantify the prototypes' performances (A 32 % efficiency is currently reached, with improvements attainable up to 60 %). Exploring the results of the developed model, validated by bench measurements, allowed to determine the current limits of the transformers as well as perspectives of improvement.

[pt] Esse trabalho teve como objetivo principal avaliar a resistência à falha da infraestrutura de uma prótese parcial fixa em zircônia de três elementos e aparafusada sobre implantes, através de análise de tensões por elementos finitos e determinação da resistência à fadiga da estrutura. Como objetivo secundário, foram avaliadas as distribuições das tensões nos demais componentes da prótese. Na análise de tensões, dois modelos distintos foram gerados, sendo o primeiro com prótese, implantes e parafusos similares àqueles adotados na clínica odontológica. Um segundo modelo, usado como controle, adotou uma geometria simplificada. As cargas mastigatórias foram aquelas usuais da literatura especializada e a análise por elementos finitos foi realizada através do programa Ansys Workbench 14.5. Os resultados das distribuições de tensões mostraram semelhanças entre os dois modelos, com pequenas variações relacionadas às geometrias empregadas. As tensões calculadas ficaram abaixo dos limites de resistência mecânica da zircônia e das ligas de titânio. No cálculo da vida em fadiga da prótese de zircônia um modelo analítico foi adotado prevendo uma vida infinita para o componente. / [en] The main goal of this work was to evaluate the failure resistance of a zirconia fixed partial denture of three elements screwed on implants by means of a finite element stress analysis and the determination of the fatigue strength of the structure. As a secondary objective, the stress distributions in the other components of the prosthesis were evaluated. In order to promote the stress analysis, two different models were generated, the first making use of prosthesis, implants and screws similar to those adopted in the dental clinic. A second model, used as control, adopted a simplified geometry. The masticatory loads were those presented usually in the literature and finite element analysis was performed making use of Ansys Workbench 14.5 program. The stress distribution results showed similarity in both models, with small variations related to the adopted geometries. The calculated stresses were smaller than the ultimate strength of the zirconia and titanium alloys. Concerning the fatigue life of the zirconia prosthesis an analytical model was adopted and estimated an infinite life for the component.

Cette thèse porte sur l'analyse d'un phénomène particulièrement important dérivant des conséquences mécaniques des transformations de phases solide-solide dans les aciers : la plasticité de transformation ou TRIP (Transformation Induced Plasticity) et son interaction avec la plasticité classique. Ce sujet est abordé à la fois par des investigations expérimentales et par une approche de modélisation numérique, pour les transformations martensitiques. / This thesis concerned with the analysis of a particularly important phenomenon which corresponds to one of the mechanical consequences of solid-solid phase transformations in steels: the transformation plasticity or TRIP (TRansformation Induced Plasticity) and its interaction with classical plasticity. This subject is addressed from the point of view of experimental investigations as well as with a nuimerical modelling approach, concerning martensitic transformations.

[pt] Neste trabalho avalia-se uma metodología de cálculo para a previsão da pressão de falha de um duto que contem colônias de corrosão, chamada Método das Linhas Ortogonais de Ruptura (MLOR). As colônias de corrosão são representadas por defeitos retangulares, localizados na superfície externa do duto. O objetivo do MLOR é ser mais exato que os métodos semi-empíricos da ASME e DNV utilizados até o momento. O MLOR também tem como objetivo evitar resultados não conservativos que podem ser obtidos com o método Mixed Type of Interacting (MTI). O MLOR apresenta outra forma de avaliar a perda de espessura efetiva de um grupo de defeitos. Ele propõe que se tracem linhas representativas do caminho pelo qual a ruptura do duto tem maior possibilidade de ocorrer, usando linhas paralelas às direções longitudinal e circunferencial do duto. Estas linhas são chamadas de linhas ortogonais de ruptura (LOR). Também considera-se o emprego de um fator de resistência circunferencial f no cálculo de uma espessura efetiva para a colônia. Este fator multiplica somente os comprimentos das LOR que estiverem na direção circunferencial do duto. O material íntegro existente entre dois defeitos é considerado na resistência à ruptura por meio da seleção de um caminho crítico que une os defeitos retangulares e que usa as direções longitudinal e circunferencial. Para a avaliação do MLOR usou-se pressões de falha para tubos com colônias de defeitos determinados experimentalmente e já publicados, além de simulações numéricas feitas pelo método dos elementos finitos (MEF), utilizando-se para isto o software comercial ANSYS. Por fim, neste trabalho concluiu-se que o MLOR apresentou bons resultados (máximos erro médio igual a -0.14 por cento e desvio padrão do erro igual a 3.53 por cento) quando comparados com os resultados experimentais e numéricos, já publicados, de nove corpos de provas em tamanho real. / [en] This dissertation comprises the evaluation of a new calculation methodology developed to predict the burst pressure of pipeline segments containing corrosion colonies. The new methodology is called Method of Orthogonal Lines Rupture (MLOR). The corrosion colonies are represented by rectangular defects, located on the outer surface of the pipeline segment. The objective of MLOR is to determine more accurate results than those calculated by the semi-empirical methods of ASME and DNV. The MLOR has also the objective of avoiding non-conservative results that can be obtained with the Mixed Type Interacting method (MTI). The MLOR presents a new way to assess the loss of effective thickness of a group of defects. It proposes the drawing of lines parallel to the longitudinal and circumferential directions that intend to represent the path by which the rupture of the pipeline is more likely to occur. These lines are called Orthogonal Lines of Rupture (LOR). It is also considered the employment of a strength circumferential factor f in the calculation of the effective thickness of the colony. This factor multiplies only the lengths of the LOR which are associated with the circumferential direction of the pipeline. Using that, the intact material existing between two defects is considered in the calculation of the rupture resistance. The critical path connects the rectangular defects using lines parallel to the longitudinal and circumferential directions. The evaluation of the MLOR was accomplished by comparing its burst pressure calculations with already published results determined for nine full scale tests carried out with specimens that contained specially designed and constructed colonies of defects. The comparisons encompassed those experimentally published test results and also results determined by numerical simulations that employed the finite element method (ANSYS commercial software). Finally, the dissertation concludes that the MLOR showed good results (maximum average error equal to -0.14 percent and standard deviation of the error equal to 3.53 percent) compared with experimental and numerical results.

Dans le cadre des procédés de chauffage et de trempe réalisés lors d’opération de mise en forme des matériaux, le rayonnement thermique joue un rôle prépondérant. Lors de l’élaboration de modèles numériques permettant la simulation de ces procédés, il est donc nécessaire de disposer d’outils performants pour simuler ce phénomène.La simulation numérique de tels procédés soulèvent de nombreuses problématiques, comme la représentation d’un environnement complexe impliquant plusieurs composants (pièces, bruleurs, buses d’injection, parois), la gestion des divers phénomènes physiques couplés (écoulement, transfert thermiques, ébullition, rayonnement). Dans cette perspective, les méthodes dites « d’immersion », permettant un traitement généraliste de ces divers problèmes, rencontrent depuis quelques années un intérêt grandissant dans la communauté scientifique.C’est dans ce contexte que s’inscrit le projet Thost, au sein duquel est réalisée cette thèse. L’objectif est donc de développer des outils pour la modélisation du rayonnement dans le contexte d’immersion de volume propre au logiciel Thost. Deux approches sont développées : l’une consistant en l’adaptation d’une méthode existante au contexte de l’immersion de volume, l’autre explorant l’élaboration d’une formulation pour un modèle particulier de rayonnement. Les outils développés sont ensuite mis à l’épreuve sur des simulations de cas industriels fournis par nos partenaires. / For heating and quenching operations occurring during material forming processes, thermal radiation is the the predominant physical phenomenon. Hence, when one tries to simulate such processes, it is important to have at disposal powerful tools for the numerical modelling of thermal radiation.The numerical simulation of these processes often rises numerous problems and questions, as the representation of a complex environment, involving several components ( ingots, burners, nozzles, walls), to deal with different coupled physical phenomena ( flow, heat transfer, boiling, thermal radiation). In this regard, some “immersed” numerical methods, allows a generalist treatment of these different problems, have gained popularity and drag interest of the scientific community in the recent years.The Thost project, aiming to produce a software for heat transfer during material forming processes, fits in the framework, and this PhD is part of this project. The goal is therefore to design tools for numerical modelling of thermal radiation within the immersed volume method of the Thost software. Two approaches are presented: one consisting in the adaptation of an existing method to the context of the immersed volume method, another concerning the development of a formulation for a specific model of radiation. These methods are then tested on industrial applications provided by our partners.

La réalisation de revêtements métalliques en surface de matériaux composites à matrice organique est possible par le procédé cold spray. La construction de tels revêtements à partir de particules de cuivre sur un substrat contenant des fibres de carbone n'a pu aboutir que grâce à l'ajout d'une poudre polymère. Malgré son rôle dans la construction des dépôts, le polymère présente le désavantage d'être un très bon isolant électrique ayant, de ce fait, une influence très néfaste sur la conductivité des dépôts cold spray. Ces travaux ont donc été concentrés sur l'étude de l'influence de la microstructure de ces dépôts sur leur conductivité électrique. Plusieurs poudres de cuivre ont été mélangées dans diverses proportions avec du PEEK, un polymère thermoplastique. La projection cold spray de ces mélanges a abouti à la formation de dépôts homogènes sur les substrats composites. L'influence des caractéristiques des poudres et des paramètres de projection sur les caractéristiques des dépôts a été étudiée. De même, la déformation du PEEK lors de la projection a été analysée car elle joue un rôle important dans la construction du dépôt. L'étude des propriétés mécaniques du PEEK et des conditions de projection ont permis de simuler sa déformation. Dans la microstructure du dépôt, la présence du PEEK limite les contacts entre les particules de cuivre, abaissant fortement la conductivité électrique des dépôts. Un modèle morphologique de la microstructure a été développé afin d'étudier l'influence de la morphologie de la phase de cuivre sur la conductivité des dépôts. Ce modèle a permis de simuler des microstructures présentant diverses morphologies en 3 dimensions. Il ouvre ainsi la possibilité d'étudier numériquement l'influence de la morphologie de la microstructure des dépôts sur leur conductivité électrique. La conductivité a été mesurées expérimentalement sur des échantillons de dépôt. Un mélange de poudre et des paramètres optimaux ont alors pu être identifiés pour obtenir un dépôt cold spray sur un substrat composite à matrice organique avec une conductivité satisfaisante mais encore inférieure à celle du cuivre massif. / The Cold Spray process allows to manufacture metallic coatings onto Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Composite (CFRP). This process relies on the spraying of high-velocity powder particles to result in high deformation and build up to form a dense coating. However, forming a coating made of copper particles onto a substrate containing carbon fibers was achieved out only by mixing metallic powder with a polymer powder. Although the polymer allow to build up the coating onto CFRP, it is highly electrically insulating. It would therefore decrease the electrical conductivity of the coating drastically. Investigations were carried out on the influence of the coatings microstructure on electrical conductivity. Various copper powders, with different morphologies, granulometry and oxygen contents were mixed with PEEK powder, i.e. a thermoplastic polymer. Cold spray of these powders leads to homogeneous coatings onto CFRP. The characteristics of these coatings were studied as a function of the influence of powder characteristics and spraying parameters. The deformation of the PEEK was also investigated as it governed the build up of the coating. Mechanical testing of PEEK samples and in-situ spraying measurements were performed to feed impact simulations. Then, simulated and experimental impact morphologies of copper particles onto PEEK were compared. The PEEK behavior under impact also prevented sound contacts between copper particles, which decreased the coatings electrical conductivity significantly. A morphological model of the microstructure of the coating was developed to reproduce microstructures in 3D numerically. It allows to investigate numerically the influence of the copper phase morphology on coating conductivity. This conductivity was measured experimentally for various starting copper powders. A carefully selected blend of copper and PEEK powders and optimized spraying parameters lead to homogeneous coatings onto CFRP with an acceptable electrical conductivity but still below bulk copper conductivity.

Les propriétés mécaniques et fonctionnelles des matériaux métalliques sont conditionnées par leurs microstructures, qui sont elles-mêmes héritées des traitements thermomécaniques subis. Etre capable de prévoir et simuler la microstructure et ses hétérogénéités lors des procédés de mise en forme complexes est récemment devenu crucial dans l'industrie métallurgique. C'est également un véritable challenge d'un point de vue numérique qui met en évidence l'importance des matériaux numériques dans les nouvelles méthodes de modélisation. Dans ce travail, nous nous intéressons à un modèle en champ complet récent basé sur la méthode level set (LS) dans un cadre éléments finis (EF) pour la modélisation des mécanismes de recristallisation.Les points forts de cette approche par rapport à l'état de l'art ont motivé le développement d'un logiciel appelé DIGIMU® par la société TRANSVALOR avec le soutien de grandes entreprises industrielles. Toutefois, le principal inconvénient de cette approche, commun aux autres méthodes en champ complet utilisant des maillages EF non structurés, reste son coût numérique important.Le principal objectif de ce travail a donc été d'améliorer considérablement le coût numérique de la formulation LS utilisée dans le contexte de maillages EF non structurés. De nouveaux développements génériques ont été réalisés pour améliorer l'efficacité globale du modèle. La formulation 2D LS existante, déjà utilisée pour modéliser la croissance de grains, la recristallisation statique et l'effet d'ancrage de Smith-Zener, a été étendue et améliorée afin de modéliser ces mécanismes en 3D pour des polycristaux à grand nombre de grains en des temps de calcul raisonnables. / Mechanical and functional properties of metallic materials are strongly related to their microstructures, which are themselves inherited from thermal and mechanical processing. Being able to accurately predict and simulate the microstructure and its heterogeneities after complex forming paths recently became crucial for the metallurgy industry. This is also a real challenge from a numerical point of view which highlights the importance of digital materials in new modeling techniques. In this work, we focus on a recent front-capturing full field model based on the level set (LS) method within a finite element (FE) framework to model recrystallization mechanisms.The strengths of this approach comparatively to the state of the art have motivated the development of a software package called DIGIMU® by the company TRANSVALOR with the support of major industrial companies. However, the main drawback of this approach, common with other front-capturing full field approaches working on unstructured FE meshes, is its important computational cost, especially in 3D.Main purpose of this work was finally to drastically improve the numerical cost of the considered LS-FE formulation in context of unstructured FE meshes. New generic numerical developments have been proposed to improve the global efficiency of the model. The existing 2D LS formulation, already used to model grain growth, static recrystallization and the Smith-Zener pinning effect, has been extended and improved in order to model these mechanisms in 3D for large-scale polycrystals with reasonable computational costs.