COSTA, E. Efeito da variação de lítio em catalisadores de ferro tendo potássio e cobre como promotores para a síntese Fischer-Tropsch. 95 f. 2010. Dissertação (Mestrado em Engenharia Química) – Centro de Tecnologia, Universidade Federal do Ceará, Fortaleza, 2010. / Submitted by Marlene Sousa (mmarlene@ufc.br) on 2016-03-23T12:23:25Z No. of bitstreams: 1 2010_dis_ecosta.pdf: 2161446 bytes, checksum: ec2de3e4dd8bf253f8868c4184687250 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Marlene Sousa(mmarlene@ufc.br) on 2016-03-28T17:12:51Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 2010_dis_ecosta.pdf: 2161446 bytes, checksum: ec2de3e4dd8bf253f8868c4184687250 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-03-28T17:12:51Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 2010_dis_ecosta.pdf: 2161446 bytes, checksum: ec2de3e4dd8bf253f8868c4184687250 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2010-02-24 / New environmental regulations and a possible instability in the international oil market have led to a renewal interest in the Fischer-Tropsch Synthesis (FTS), which is an alternative to produce more environmental friendly fuels. The FTS is a polymerization reaction, in which syngas (H2 + CO) reacts in the presence of catalyst to produce hydrocarbons. Three iron-based catalysts supported in silica and promoted with lithium were synthesized and the effects of lithium content and operating conditions (temperature and pressure) were studied. The composition of the catalysts was based on 100Fe/5Cu/24K/240SiO2 (molar basis) with varying lithium concentration 06Li, 12Li e 24Li. The catalysts were characterized by X-ray fluorescence, X-ray diffraction, thermogravimetric analysis, textural analysis and temperature programming reduction. An experimental planning was carried out for each catalyst, varying the temperature from 240 to 270 ºC and the pressure from 20 to 30 atm. The answer variables were the average carbon number (Nm), dispersion and curtosis of the product distribution. The reactions were carried out in a slurry bed reactor and the products were analyzed by gas chromatography. The products were identified by means of internal standards and quantified by mass balance. The product distribution of the FTS presented a normal distribution in the diesel and wax region. The distribution was similar to a Gaussian curve for all catalysts. The liquid products consisted mainly of n-parafins. The results for all catalysts presented significant quantities of n-parafins in the range of 20 to 36 carbons. The perturbation analysis of the independent variables (temperature, pressure and lithium content) showed that only the lithium content has a significant effect over the average carbon number, at a 90% confidence level. The lithium content presented a negative effect over the average carbon number. / Diante das atuais exigências ambientais e uma possível instabilidade no mercado internacional de petróleo, o processo de Síntese de Fischer-Tropsch (SFT) representa uma nova trajetória tecnológica na busca de combustíveis alternativos limpos. A SFT é uma reação de polimerização, na qual o gás de síntese (H2 + CO) reage na presença de um catalisador produzindo uma mistura de hidrocarbonetos. A fim de se estudar o efeito das condições operacionais (temperatura e pressão) e do teor de lítio como promotor em catalisadores de ferro para a (SFT) foram sintetizados três catalisadores suportados em sílica. A composição desses catalisadores em base molar seguiu o padrão: 100Fe/5Cu/24K/240SiO2, variando apenas a concentração de lítio, em 06Li, 12Li e 24Li. Os catalisadores foram caracterizados através das técnicas de fluorescência de raios-X, difração de raios-X, análise termogravimétrica, análise textural e redução a temperatura programada. Foi realizado um planejamento experimental fatorial para cada catalisador e as variáveis respostas selecionadas foram o número médio de carbono (Nm), a dispersão e a curtose da distribuição dos produtos. A pressão variou de 240 a 270ºC e a pressão de 20 a 30 atm. As reações foram conduzidas em um reator de leito de lama de alta pressão e os produtos gerados foram analisados por cromatografia gasosa e identificados através de padrões internos e quantificados a partir de balanços molares e programa computacional de estimativa de área dos picos. A distribuição de hidrocarbonetos resultantes da reação da Síntese de Fischer-Tropsch apresentou comportamento de uma distribuição normal para fração diesel e graxa, semelhante ao comportamento de uma Gaussiana para todos os catalisadores nas condições estudadas. Os produtos líquidos obtidos nas corridas experimentais da SFT são constituídos principalmente de n-parafinas. Os resultados de todos os experimentos para os três tipos de catalisador apresentaram quantidades significativas de n-parafinas na faixa de 20 a 36 átomos de carbono. A análise estatística da perturbação das variáveis independentes do processo (temperatura, pressão e concentração de lítio no catalisador) sobre o número médio de carbonos mostra que apenas a concentração de lítio no catalisador tem um efeito significativo para um intervalo de confiança de 90%. A concentração de lítio apresenta influência negativa, indicando que sua utilização desfavorece a produção de hidrocarbonetos de maior peso molecular.

Les performances des catalyseurs hétérogènes sont généralement attribuées à la présence de sites actifs. La concentration, l’activité intrinsèque, la localisation et la stabilité de ces sites sont des paramètres importants de tous les systèmes catalytiques connus. Les méthodes cinétiques transitoires comme SSITKA sont des outils puissants pour mener à bien les études cinétiques des réactions catalytiques. La promotion des catalyseurs à base de fer avec des métaux utilisés pour la soudure (Bi et Pb) conduit à une augmentation remarquable de la vitesse de production des oléfines légères avec la possibilité d’effectuer la synthèse Fischer-Tropsch dans des conditions très douces (basse pression) voire pression atmosphérique. Les expériences cinétiques transitoires ont démontré la facilité de la dissociation du CO à la surface du carbure de fer en présence des promoteurs par le piégeage d’atomes d’oxygène. Parmi tous les catalyseurs étudiés, les catalyseurs à base de zéolite de type mordenite ont présenté la valeur la plus élevée de la constante de vitesse SSITKA. En revanche, la ZSM-5 utilisée comme support présentait une vitesse de réaction la plus basse, probablement à cause de la localisation de nanoparticules de cobalt uniquement à la surface externe de zéolite (Suite)La localisation des sites actifs de cobalt dans les catalyseurs bifonctionnels à base de zéolite et de cobalt a un impact majeur sur la vitesse de réaction et en particulier sur la sélectivité en hydrocarbures. La proximité entre les sites actifs de cobalt et les sites actifs de Brønsted a été considérée comme un paramètre clef pour obtenir une sélectivité et un rendement plus élevés en hydrocarbures ramifiés. Le SSITKA couplé à des techniques de caractérisation a révélé que le dépôt de carbone et l'agglomération des nanoparticules de cobalt étaient responsables de la désactivation du catalyseur cobalt supporté par la silice. Le dépôt de carbone a entraîné une diminution du nombre d'intermédiaires carbonés qui produisent du méthane via leur hydrogénation. La régénération des catalyseurs sous hydrogène diminue le nombre d'espèces de carbone déposées et libère partiellement les sites les plus actifs d’adsorption dissociative et les sites les plus forts d'adsorption réversible du monoxyde de carbone. L'étude de modélisation SSITKA a démontré la présence de deux intermédiaires carbonés. / O desempenho de catalisadores heterogêneos é geralmente atribuído a presença de sítios ativos. A concentração, a atividade intrínseca, a localização e a estabilidade destes sítios são os principais parâmetros de todos os sistemas catalíticos conhecidos. Métodos cinéticos transientes, como análise por SSITKA, são técnicas poderosas para o estudo cinético de reações catalíticas heterogêneas. Catalisadores à base de ferro com a presença de promotores metálicos (Bi e Pb) causaram notável aumento na taxa de produção de olefinas leves, criando a possibilidade de realizar a síntese de Fischer-Tropsch em condições amenas de reação e até mesmo em pressão atmosférica. Experimentos cinéticos transientes mostraram que a dissociação de CO é facilitada na presença de promotores devido a retirada de átomos de oxigênio pela ação do carboneto de ferro. O catalisador de cobalto suportado em zeólita mordenita apresentou maior valor da taxa de reação determinada por SSITKA entre todos os catalisadores suportados em zeólitas estudados. No entanto, ZSM-5 utilizada como suporte apresentou menor taxa de reação, provavelmente devido à localização das nanopartículas de cobalto na superfície externa da zeólita A localização dos sítios ativos de cobalto em catalisadores bifuncionais formados por cobalto e zeólita apresentou grande impacto sobre a taxa de reação e em particular sobre a seletividade dos hidrocarbonetos. A proximidade entre os sítios ativos de cobalto e os sítios ativos de Brønsted demonstrou ser um parâmetro chave para obter uma alta seletividade e alto rendimento de hidrocarbonetos ramificados. O estudo combinando a análise SSITKA com técnicas de caracterização de catalisadores revelou que a deposição de carbono e a aglomeração de nanopartículas de cobalto durante a reação foram os responsáveis pela desativação do catalisador de cobalto suportado em sílica. A regeneração do catalisador via hidrogenação diminuiu o depósito de carbono e liberou parcialmente os sítios mais ativos para a dissociação de monóxido de carbono, assim como os sítios envolvidos na adsorção reversível de monóxido de carbono. A modelagem SSITKA demonstrou a presença de duas espécies intermediárias de carbono. / The catalytic performance of heterogeneous catalysts is usually attributed to the presence of active sites. The concentration, intrinsic activity, localisation and stability of these sites are major parameters of all known catalytic systems. Transient kinetic methods such as Steady State Transient Kinetic Analysis (SSITKA) are powerful tools for carrying out kinetic studies of heterogeneous catalytic reactions. Promotion of iron catalysts with metals used for soldering (Bi and Pb) results a remarkable increase in the light olefin production rate with the possibility to conduct Fischer-Tropsch synthesis at very mild reaction conditions (low pressure) and even at atmospheric pressure. Transient kinetic experiments showed facilitation of CO dissociation in the presence of promoters by scavenging O atoms from iron carbide. Cobalt catalyst supported by mordenite zeolite presented higher value of SSITKA rate constant among all catalysts studied. On the other hand, the ZSM-5 as support presented the lowest reaction rate, probably due to the localization of cobalt nanoparticles on the external surface of the zeolite Localization of cobalt active sites in bifunctional cobalt-zeolite catalysts has a major impact on the reaction rate and in particular on the hydrocarbon selectivity. A proximity between the cobalt active site and Brønsted active sites was found to be a key parameter to obtain higher selectivity and yield of isomerized hydrocarbons. SSITKA combined with catalyst characterization revealed that carbon deposition and cobalt nanoparticle agglomeration were responsible for the deactivation of silica supported cobalt catalysts. The carbon deposition led to a decrease in the number of carbon-chemisorbed intermediates, which yield methane through their hydrogenation. Catalyst rejuvenation in hydrogen lessened the amounts of deposited carbon species and partially released the most active sites of carbon monoxide dissociative adsorption and stronger sites of carbon monoxide reversible adsorption. The SSITKA modeling demonstrated the presence of two intermediates carbon species.

Les performances des catalyseurs hétérogènes sont généralement attribuées à la présence de sites actifs. La concentration, l’activité intrinsèque, la localisation et la stabilité de ces sites sont des paramètres importants de tous les systèmes catalytiques connus. Les méthodes cinétiques transitoires comme SSITKA sont des outils puissants pour mener à bien les études cinétiques des réactions catalytiques. La promotion des catalyseurs à base de fer avec des métaux utilisés pour la soudure (Bi et Pb) conduit à une augmentation remarquable de la vitesse de production des oléfines légères avec la possibilité d’effectuer la synthèse Fischer-Tropsch dans des conditions très douces (basse pression) voire pression atmosphérique. Les expériences cinétiques transitoires ont démontré la facilité de la dissociation du CO à la surface du carbure de fer en présence des promoteurs par le piégeage d’atomes d’oxygène. Parmi tous les catalyseurs étudiés, les catalyseurs à base de zéolite de type mordenite ont présenté la valeur la plus élevée de la constante de vitesse SSITKA. En revanche, la ZSM-5 utilisée comme support présentait une vitesse de réaction la plus basse, probablement à cause de la localisation de nanoparticules de cobalt uniquement à la surface externe de zéolite (Suite)La localisation des sites actifs de cobalt dans les catalyseurs bifonctionnels à base de zéolite et de cobalt a un impact majeur sur la vitesse de réaction et en particulier sur la sélectivité en hydrocarbures. La proximité entre les sites actifs de cobalt et les sites actifs de Brønsted a été considérée comme un paramètre clef pour obtenir une sélectivité et un rendement plus élevés en hydrocarbures ramifiés. Le SSITKA couplé à des techniques de caractérisation a révélé que le dépôt de carbone et l'agglomération des nanoparticules de cobalt étaient responsables de la désactivation du catalyseur cobalt supporté par la silice. Le dépôt de carbone a entraîné une diminution du nombre d'intermédiaires carbonés qui produisent du méthane via leur hydrogénation. La régénération des catalyseurs sous hydrogène diminue le nombre d'espèces de carbone déposées et libère partiellement les sites les plus actifs d’adsorption dissociative et les sites les plus forts d'adsorption réversible du monoxyde de carbone. L'étude de modélisation SSITKA a démontré la présence de deux intermédiaires carbonés. / O desempenho de catalisadores heterogêneos é geralmente atribuído a presença de sítios ativos. A concentração, a atividade intrínseca, a localização e a estabilidade destes sítios são os principais parâmetros de todos os sistemas catalíticos conhecidos. Métodos cinéticos transientes, como análise por SSITKA, são técnicas poderosas para o estudo cinético de reações catalíticas heterogêneas. Catalisadores à base de ferro com a presença de promotores metálicos (Bi e Pb) causaram notável aumento na taxa de produção de olefinas leves, criando a possibilidade de realizar a síntese de Fischer-Tropsch em condições amenas de reação e até mesmo em pressão atmosférica. Experimentos cinéticos transientes mostraram que a dissociação de CO é facilitada na presença de promotores devido a retirada de átomos de oxigênio pela ação do carboneto de ferro. O catalisador de cobalto suportado em zeólita mordenita apresentou maior valor da taxa de reação determinada por SSITKA entre todos os catalisadores suportados em zeólitas estudados. No entanto, ZSM-5 utilizada como suporte apresentou menor taxa de reação, provavelmente devido à localização das nanopartículas de cobalto na superfície externa da zeólita A localização dos sítios ativos de cobalto em catalisadores bifuncionais formados por cobalto e zeólita apresentou grande impacto sobre a taxa de reação e em particular sobre a seletividade dos hidrocarbonetos. A proximidade entre os sítios ativos de cobalto e os sítios ativos de Brønsted demonstrou ser um parâmetro chave para obter uma alta seletividade e alto rendimento de hidrocarbonetos ramificados. O estudo combinando a análise SSITKA com técnicas de caracterização de catalisadores revelou que a deposição de carbono e a aglomeração de nanopartículas de cobalto durante a reação foram os responsáveis pela desativação do catalisador de cobalto suportado em sílica. A regeneração do catalisador via hidrogenação diminuiu o depósito de carbono e liberou parcialmente os sítios mais ativos para a dissociação de monóxido de carbono, assim como os sítios envolvidos na adsorção reversível de monóxido de carbono. A modelagem SSITKA demonstrou a presença de duas espécies intermediárias de carbono. / The catalytic performance of heterogeneous catalysts is usually attributed to the presence of active sites. The concentration, intrinsic activity, localisation and stability of these sites are major parameters of all known catalytic systems. Transient kinetic methods such as Steady State Transient Kinetic Analysis (SSITKA) are powerful tools for carrying out kinetic studies of heterogeneous catalytic reactions. Promotion of iron catalysts with metals used for soldering (Bi and Pb) results a remarkable increase in the light olefin production rate with the possibility to conduct Fischer-Tropsch synthesis at very mild reaction conditions (low pressure) and even at atmospheric pressure. Transient kinetic experiments showed facilitation of CO dissociation in the presence of promoters by scavenging O atoms from iron carbide. Cobalt catalyst supported by mordenite zeolite presented higher value of SSITKA rate constant among all catalysts studied. On the other hand, the ZSM-5 as support presented the lowest reaction rate, probably due to the localization of cobalt nanoparticles on the external surface of the zeolite Localization of cobalt active sites in bifunctional cobalt-zeolite catalysts has a major impact on the reaction rate and in particular on the hydrocarbon selectivity. A proximity between the cobalt active site and Brønsted active sites was found to be a key parameter to obtain higher selectivity and yield of isomerized hydrocarbons. SSITKA combined with catalyst characterization revealed that carbon deposition and cobalt nanoparticle agglomeration were responsible for the deactivation of silica supported cobalt catalysts. The carbon deposition led to a decrease in the number of carbon-chemisorbed intermediates, which yield methane through their hydrogenation. Catalyst rejuvenation in hydrogen lessened the amounts of deposited carbon species and partially released the most active sites of carbon monoxide dissociative adsorption and stronger sites of carbon monoxide reversible adsorption. The SSITKA modeling demonstrated the presence of two intermediates carbon species.

Please read the abstract (Synopsis) in the section 00front of this document / Dissertation (M Eng (Chemical Engineering))--University of Pretoria, 2007. / Chemical Engineering / MEng / unrestricted

Les performances des catalyseurs hétérogènes sont généralement attribuées à la présence de sites actifs. La concentration, l’activité intrinsèque, la localisation et la stabilité de ces sites sont des paramètres importants de tous les systèmes catalytiques connus. Les méthodes cinétiques transitoires comme SSITKA sont des outils puissants pour mener à bien les études cinétiques des réactions catalytiques. La promotion des catalyseurs à base de fer avec des métaux utilisés pour la soudure (Bi et Pb) conduit à une augmentation remarquable de la vitesse de production des oléfines légères avec la possibilité d’effectuer la synthèse Fischer-Tropsch dans des conditions très douces (basse pression) voire pression atmosphérique. Les expériences cinétiques transitoires ont démontré la facilité de la dissociation du CO à la surface du carbure de fer en présence des promoteurs par le piégeage d’atomes d’oxygène. Parmi tous les catalyseurs étudiés, les catalyseurs à base de zéolite de type mordenite ont présenté la valeur la plus élevée de la constante de vitesse SSITKA. En revanche, la ZSM-5 utilisée comme support présentait une vitesse de réaction la plus basse, probablement à cause de la localisation de nanoparticules de cobalt uniquement à la surface externe de zéolite (Suite)La localisation des sites actifs de cobalt dans les catalyseurs bifonctionnels à base de zéolite et de cobalt a un impact majeur sur la vitesse de réaction et en particulier sur la sélectivité en hydrocarbures. La proximité entre les sites actifs de cobalt et les sites actifs de Brønsted a été considérée comme un paramètre clef pour obtenir une sélectivité et un rendement plus élevés en hydrocarbures ramifiés. Le SSITKA couplé à des techniques de caractérisation a révélé que le dépôt de carbone et l'agglomération des nanoparticules de cobalt étaient responsables de la désactivation du catalyseur cobalt supporté par la silice. Le dépôt de carbone a entraîné une diminution du nombre d'intermédiaires carbonés qui produisent du méthane via leur hydrogénation. La régénération des catalyseurs sous hydrogène diminue le nombre d'espèces de carbone déposées et libère partiellement les sites les plus actifs d’adsorption dissociative et les sites les plus forts d'adsorption réversible du monoxyde de carbone. L'étude de modélisation SSITKA a démontré la présence de deux intermédiaires carbonés. / O desempenho de catalisadores heterogêneos é geralmente atribuído a presença de sítios ativos. A concentração, a atividade intrínseca, a localização e a estabilidade destes sítios são os principais parâmetros de todos os sistemas catalíticos conhecidos. Métodos cinéticos transientes, como análise por SSITKA, são técnicas poderosas para o estudo cinético de reações catalíticas heterogêneas. Catalisadores à base de ferro com a presença de promotores metálicos (Bi e Pb) causaram notável aumento na taxa de produção de olefinas leves, criando a possibilidade de realizar a síntese de Fischer-Tropsch em condições amenas de reação e até mesmo em pressão atmosférica. Experimentos cinéticos transientes mostraram que a dissociação de CO é facilitada na presença de promotores devido a retirada de átomos de oxigênio pela ação do carboneto de ferro. O catalisador de cobalto suportado em zeólita mordenita apresentou maior valor da taxa de reação determinada por SSITKA entre todos os catalisadores suportados em zeólitas estudados. No entanto, ZSM-5 utilizada como suporte apresentou menor taxa de reação, provavelmente devido à localização das nanopartículas de cobalto na superfície externa da zeólita A localização dos sítios ativos de cobalto em catalisadores bifuncionais formados por cobalto e zeólita apresentou grande impacto sobre a taxa de reação e em particular sobre a seletividade dos hidrocarbonetos. A proximidade entre os sítios ativos de cobalto e os sítios ativos de Brønsted demonstrou ser um parâmetro chave para obter uma alta seletividade e alto rendimento de hidrocarbonetos ramificados. O estudo combinando a análise SSITKA com técnicas de caracterização de catalisadores revelou que a deposição de carbono e a aglomeração de nanopartículas de cobalto durante a reação foram os responsáveis pela desativação do catalisador de cobalto suportado em sílica. A regeneração do catalisador via hidrogenação diminuiu o depósito de carbono e liberou parcialmente os sítios mais ativos para a dissociação de monóxido de carbono, assim como os sítios envolvidos na adsorção reversível de monóxido de carbono. A modelagem SSITKA demonstrou a presença de duas espécies intermediárias de carbono. / The catalytic performance of heterogeneous catalysts is usually attributed to the presence of active sites. The concentration, intrinsic activity, localisation and stability of these sites are major parameters of all known catalytic systems. Transient kinetic methods such as Steady State Transient Kinetic Analysis (SSITKA) are powerful tools for carrying out kinetic studies of heterogeneous catalytic reactions. Promotion of iron catalysts with metals used for soldering (Bi and Pb) results a remarkable increase in the light olefin production rate with the possibility to conduct Fischer-Tropsch synthesis at very mild reaction conditions (low pressure) and even at atmospheric pressure. Transient kinetic experiments showed facilitation of CO dissociation in the presence of promoters by scavenging O atoms from iron carbide. Cobalt catalyst supported by mordenite zeolite presented higher value of SSITKA rate constant among all catalysts studied. On the other hand, the ZSM-5 as support presented the lowest reaction rate, probably due to the localization of cobalt nanoparticles on the external surface of the zeolite Localization of cobalt active sites in bifunctional cobalt-zeolite catalysts has a major impact on the reaction rate and in particular on the hydrocarbon selectivity. A proximity between the cobalt active site and Brønsted active sites was found to be a key parameter to obtain higher selectivity and yield of isomerized hydrocarbons. SSITKA combined with catalyst characterization revealed that carbon deposition and cobalt nanoparticle agglomeration were responsible for the deactivation of silica supported cobalt catalysts. The carbon deposition led to a decrease in the number of carbon-chemisorbed intermediates, which yield methane through their hydrogenation. Catalyst rejuvenation in hydrogen lessened the amounts of deposited carbon species and partially released the most active sites of carbon monoxide dissociative adsorption and stronger sites of carbon monoxide reversible adsorption. The SSITKA modeling demonstrated the presence of two intermediates carbon species.

Bifunctional catalysts consisting of palladium or platinum and supported on amorphous silica-alumina were prepared and tested in the hydrocracking of n-hexadecane, which is considered to be representative of n-paraffins in hydrocracker feeds. In addition to the evaluation of the  physicochemical properties, a comprehensive study on catalyst activity and selectivity has been conducted, in the full range of conversions. A theoretical model was proposed to fit the experimental conversion-selectivity data. The n-hexadecane reactivity pattern was expressed in terms of a reaction network involving lumps consisting of monobranched and multibranched n-hexadecane isomers, and cracking products. Pseudo first order kinetics and irreversible reaction steps were assumed in order to obtain the kinetic constants of each step. For the same metallic molar loading, a platinum-based catalyst proved more active than a palladium one. The reaction network model showed that cracking products were produced by means of a bifunctional mechanism on palladium catalysts, with n-hexadecane isomers as intermediates. However, on platinum catalysts, an additional monofunctional mechanism was observed. The noble metal catalyzes the hydrogenolysis of n-hexadecane without requiring any acid function. An increase in the platinum loading leads to an increase in the importance of this direct cracking route. The deactivation in the platinum-based catalysts is only due to coke formation, which deactivates the metal sites. The regeneration by means of a Temperature-Programmed Oxidation does not lead to a complete recovery of the metal function, according to the volumetric chemisorption measurements and the experimental selectivity  data. Further work is required to determine the real causes.

Fischer-Tropsch synthesis enables the production of high quality diesel fuel from biomass derived synthesis gas. In order to increase the overall diesel yield, it is necessary to perform a subsequent hydrocracking of the long-chain linear paraffins. This work is focused on characterization and testing of catalysts for the hydrocracking reaction of Fischer-Tropsch waxes. In particular, noble metal catalyst based on Pt and Pd on amorphous silica-alumina support were tested. Palladium based catalysts performed nearly an ideal bifunctional mechanism, while platinum based catalysts performed another way of cracking: hydrogenolysis. Platinum based catalysts are more active than palladium ones, with the same metal loading. This is a consequence of the nature of the metal sites. The product distribution is similar for both platinum and palladium catalysts. However, due to the hydrogenolysis cracking mechanism performed by platinum based catalysts, the amount of light gases produced on platinum based catalysts is higher. Furthermore, the deactivation behavior of the Platinum and Palladium catalysts has been studied, and the results showed that the dispersion of the active phase decreased with deactivation and the average crystallite diameter increased. This means a decrease in activity. A regeneration program, temperature programmed oxidation (TPO), has been carried out demonstrating that the activity was not completely recovered.

The effects of noble metal (NM) promotion and deposition order (co-deposition of NM with the final Co deposition [co-dep] or sequential deposition of NM after Co deposition [seq-dep]) on surface area, pore size, metal retention, crystallite size, noble metal distribution and bonding in Co Fischer Tropsch (FT) catalysts were studied as were the resulting Co reducibility and Fischer Tropsch activity/selectivity properties. Catalysts containing nominally 25wt% Co with either 0.3 wt% Ru, 0.58 wt% Pt, 0.55wt% Re, or no NM on a La-stabilized-Al2O3 support were prepared by wet deposition. The Co, Pt, and Re were uniformly dispersed, but Ru distribution and retention were problematic and deposition-order dependent—85% was lost with co-dep, but it was uniformly distributed while 54% was lost with seq-dep and it was concentrated at the pellet edge. The co-dep catalysts all have smaller reduced Co crystallite size than their corresponding seq-dep catalysts. The average crystallite diameters for all 3 co-dep catalysts are between 4.1 and 4.3nm and ~90% of the crystallites are < 6nm. XAFS measurements showed that after reduction at 360°C, Pt is bonded with Co even with mild calcination between the final Co and the Pt deposition. On the other hand, neither Ru nor Re formed direct bonds with Co. Ru remained in a separate metal phase after reduction even at low loadings. Re remained as Re2O7 and still promoted Co reduction well (e.g. 42% reduced to Co metal compared to none for the unpromoted catalyst). By all measures of reducibility (TPR, EOR, H2 uptake), all NM promoted catalysts were more reducible than the unpromoted catalyst. The co-dep catalysts have lower TPR peak temperatures, but lower extents of reduction than their corresponding seq-dep catalysts. The NM type effect on overall extent of reduction trend was Co/Pt-seq>Co/Re-seq>Co/Ru-seq=Co/Pt-co>Co/Re-co>Co/Ru-co>Co. The Co/Pt-co catalyst was the most active of all the catalysts both on rate per mass and per site basis. The co-dep catalysts were all more active than the corresponding sequentially deposited catalysts. The co-dep Pt and Re catalyst activity is greater due to higher activity per site, while co-dep Ru activity is greater due to a higher abundance of active sites.

A series of silver-promoted, 20 wt% cobalt Fischer-Tropsch synthesis (FTS) catalysts supported on an alumina modified with 5 wt% silica were prepared using two methods: traditional incipient wetness impregnation (IWI) and a new solvent-deficient precipitation (SDP) technique. Catalysts containing silver promoter concentrations of 0.3, 0.6, 1.2, and 2.5 wt% were prepared using each of the two methods. Silver improved the reducibility of the cobalt significantly, lowering reduction temperatures by up to 100°C, and increasing the extent of reduction by up to 35%. Further, in both preparation methods, changing the silver loading altered the cobalt dispersion. The smallest Co crystallite size was achieved with 1.2 wt% Ag loading, which produced average cobalt crystallite sizes of about 7 nm. The Fischer-Tropsch CO consumption rate increased with decreasing crystallite size and thus was highest for 1.2 wt% Ag. Intrinsic CO consumption rates per Co site (CO turnover frequency) were also measured for each catalyst. A clear increase in the intrinsic turnover frequency (TOF) was observed as Ag loading was increased from 0.6% to 1.2 wt% for both preparation methods. Both 1.2 wt% Ag catalysts produced TOF’s of ~0.050 s-1 (equivalent to a CO consumption rate of ~65 mmol gcat-1 h-1), which are 20-30% higher than the catalysts containing 0.3, 0.6, and 2.5 wt% Ag and are comparable to reported rates for commercial FTS catalysts. Higher loadings of Ag (2.5 wt%) resulted in higher extents of reduction, but led to lower TOFs and larger Co crystallite diameters, which is assumed to be due to blockage of active sites and changes in the Ag-Ag and Ag-Co coordination ratio. Thus, silver promotion appears to improve catalytic performance by enhancing cobalt reduction, dispersion, and electronic properties. The SDP and IWI methods produced catalysts with the same properties, but the SDP method is a simpler, one-pot technique that offers many potential advantages.In another part of this work a series of Co Fischer-Tropsch synthesis catalysts with the same composition and preparation procedures, but supported on four different aluminas, were synthesized, characterized, and kinetically tested to investigate the effect of the supports on their performance. The results demonstrate that the most active catalyst, with a rate of 49 mmol CO gcat-1h-1 at 220°C and 20 atm, is obtained by using the Al-Si support, which has: high surface area and pore volume, high hydrothermal stability and lower number of hydroxyl groups on the surface.Finally, the effect of Co nanocrystal (NC) size on deactivation of Co FT catalysts by sintering was studied using surface chemical properties of the active metal phase and the support and their interactions. Values of surface energy, adhesion and cohesion energy, chemical potential, diffusivity, and energy required for sintering deactivation versus Co NC diameter were calculated. Effects of the FT reaction environment, such as water concentration and temperature, on sintering was explained and quantified. Co sintering via Ostwald Ripening was found to be a chemically driven phenomena. Also, adhesion energy and appropriate deposition of Co NCs inside support pores are the most important factors affecting the sintering rate via crystal migration and coalescence.

Esta tesis se inscribe en el marco del Programa para el De-sarrollo y Utilización del Recurso Gasífero de la Provincia de Santa Cruz cuyo principal objetivo es identificar y examinar alternativas de incorporación de valor agregado al gas natu-ral. En particular en la presente se estudia, a nivel prefac-tibilidad privada y social, la viabilidad de la radicación de una planta localizada el Puerto Punta Loyola, destinada a la pro-ducción de combustibles Gas to Liquids (GTL) mediante el pro-ceso FischerTropsch. Para la evaluación privada se utiliza la metodología propuesta por UNIDO, mientras que para el aná-lisis social la de OCDE. Debido a que los procesos FischerTropsch permiten valorizar reservas de gas natural localizadas en regiones alejadas de los centros de consumo y permiten alcanzar las especificaciones de calidad de los combustibles, estas tecnologías pueden jugar un rol fundamental en los pró-ximos años. En Argentina, luego de la recuperación de la eco-nomía tras la crisis de los años 1999-2003 y del año 2009, la demanda de gas oil ha mostrado una tendencia creciente. Sin embargo, la capacidad de refinación local no ha sufrido varia-ciones significativas en los últimos años, teniendo por tanto que recurrirse a la importación para garantizar su provisión. Este problema de abastecimiento junto con las normas relati-vas a la calidad de los combustibles representan un nicho de mercado para el proyecto. Desde el punto de vista técnico es factible transformar el gas natural en combustibles líquidos ya que la tecnología ha sido probada por muchos años. Sin embargo, cabe mencionar que el costo de capital de la planta bajo estudio se duplicaría respecto de los proyectos mundiales. Los productos a comercializar se valúan según sus precios internos regulados por la Resolución N 394/2007 haciendo que el proyecto no sea aceptable. Por lo tanto, se plantean algunos escenarios alternativos -amortización acelerada o la posibilidad de financiar la inversión inicial- que si bien mejoran la rentabilidad del proyecto no resulta suficientes para reco-mendar su realización. El proyecto solo es aceptable cuando se supone que la producción se coloca a precios internacio-nales. Sin embargo, se demuestra que leves cambios desfavo-rables en las variables críticas tornarían el proyecto inacepta-ble. Los indicadores de rentabilidad se calcularon a partir de la tasa de descuento informada por la industria petroquímica (18%). A pesar de considerarlo alto, se respeta este dato aunque, dado que se trata de una tasa de rentabilidad real habría que tomar como referencia la estimación realizada por Weston y Copeland (1995). Respecto de la evaluación social solo se realiza el análisis de eficiencia, sin tener en cuenta la distribución del ingreso. En este marco, dado que el proyecto es intensivo en el uso de un recurso escaso en el país, no re-sulta aceptable. En un análisis posterior sería interesante estudiar un proceso alternativo de producción (Synfuels) para comparar los resultados. Además resultaría provechoso incor-porar los efectos de multiplicación de empleo que se origina-rán a partir de la instalación de la planta y de las externalida-des del proyecto. / This thesis was elaborated in the framework of the Programa para el Desarrollo y Utilización del Recurso Gasífero de la Pro-vincia de Santa Cruz whose main objective is to identify and examine alternatives to add value to natural gas. The work was focused on the study of the viability of a plant for the production of fuels Gas to Liquids (GTL) using Fischer-Tropsch process, to be located in Puerto Punta Loyola. For the private evaluation the methodology proposed by UNIDO was used, while the one proposed by the OECD guided the social analy-sis. Since Fischer-Tropsch processes can both add value to natural gas reserves located in regions far from consumption centers and reach the quality specifications for fuels, these technologies can play a fundamental role in the near future. In Argentina, after the 1999-2003 and 2009 crisis, demand for gas oil has shown an increasing trend. However, the local refi-ning capacity has not changed significantly in recent years, inducing increased imports to ensure supply. Shortages of supply problems together with quality standards of fuel provi-de a market niche for the project.From a technical point of view it is possible to transform natural gas into liquid fuels since the technology has been proven for many years. Howe-ver, it is noteworthy that the capital cost of the plant under study would double the cost of similar projects over the world. Products manufactured in the plant to be traded in the market have to be valued according to their domestic prices regulated by Resolution No. 394/2007 and because of this fact the project becomes unacceptable. Some alternative scenarios - accelerated depreciation or the possibility of finan-cing the initial investment- were then presented. Though able to improve the profitability of the projects they are not enough to recommend its implementation. The project beco-mes acceptable only when it is assumed that the production is valued at international prices. Besides, it is shown that sli-ght adverse changes in critical variables would make it un-acceptable. The profitability indicators were calculated using the discount rate reported by the petrochemical industry (18%). Although considered high, this value was respected. However, since this is a real rate of return, estimates by Wes-ton and Copeland (1995) should be taken as a reference. With respect to social evaluation only the analysis of effi-ciency was performed, regardless of income distribution. In this context, since the project is intensive in the use of a scarce resource in the country, it becomes not acceptable. In a future research it would be interesting to study an alter-native process of production (Synfuels) in order to compare the results. Moreover, it would be helpful to incorporate the employment multiplier effects induced by the installation of the plant as well as the externalities of the project.