Lower C2–C4 olefins are important commodity chemicals usually produced by steam cracking of naphtha or fluid catalytic cracking of vacuum gas oil. The Fischer–Tropsch synthesis of lower olefins (FTO) with iron-based catalysts uses synthesis gas as an alternative feedstock. Nanostructured carbon materials are widely applied as supports for the iron nanoparticles due to their weak interaction with the metal species, facilitating the formation of catalytically active iron carbide. Numerous synthetic approaches towards carbon-supported FTO catalysts with various structures and properties have been published in recent years but structure-performance relationships remain poorly understood. We apply ordered mesoporous carbon (CMK-3) as a support material with well-defined pore structure to investigate the relationships between calcination/activation conditions and catalytic properties. After loading of iron and sodium/sulfur as the promoters, the structures and properties of the FTO catalysts are varied by using different calcination (300–1000 °C) and activation (350 or 450 °C) temperatures followed by FTO testing at 1 bar, 350 °C, H2/CO = 1. Carbothermal reduction of iron oxides by the support material occurs at calcination temperatures of 800 or 1000 °C, leading to a higher ratio of catalytically active iron(carbide) species but the catalytic activity remains low due to particle growth and blocking of the catalytically active sites with dense graphite layers. For the samples calcined at 300 and 500 °C, the formation of non-blocked iron carbide can be enhanced by activation at higher temperatures, leading to higher catalytic activity. Olefin selectivities of ∼60%C in the formed hydrocarbons with methane of ∼10%C are achieved for all catalysts under FTO conditions at low CO conversion. The influence of the calcination temperature is further investigated under industrially relevant FTO conditions. Promoted CMK-3-supported catalysts obtained at low calcination temperatures of 300–500 °C show stable operation for 140 h of time on stream at 10 bar, 340 °C, H2/CO = 2.

Orientador: Reginaldo Guirardello / Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia Química / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-27T12:37:15Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Freitas_AntonioCarlosDaltrode_D.pdf: 6856921 bytes, checksum: 9a39352c311e27b7f5ddb44084565f2e (MD5) Previous issue date: 2015 / Resumo: Há um crescente interesse por fontes alternativas de energia limpa, segura e renovável, e por tecnologias de transformação destas fontes em combustíveis. Dentre esses processos, a reação de gaseificação utilizando água supercrítica (SCWG), visando a produção de hidrogênio e a reação de síntese de Fischer-Tropsch (FT) visando a produção de combustíveis líquidos, vêm ocupando papel de destaque. Nesse contexto, essa tese teve como objetivo realizar a análise termodinâmica das reações envolvidas na transformação de biomassa em combustíveis, utilizando para isso, técnicas de otimização global. Foram aplicadas as metodologias de minimização da energia de Gibbs para sistemas com pressão e temperatura constantes e de maximização da entropia para sistemas com pressão e entalpia constantes. Os problemas foram formulados na forma de programações lineares e não lineares, e as metodologias propostas foram implementadas e resolvidas no software GAMS. Primeiramente foi realizada a análise termodinâmica da transformação de diferentes fontes renováveis de energia, tais como etanol, glicerol, glicose, celulose, lignina, bagaço de cana de açúcar e biomassa microalgal, em hidrogênio ou gás de síntese por meio da reação de SCWG. Posteriormente o uso do gás de síntese produzido, foi termodinamicamente avaliado visando a produção de combustíveis líquidos, por meio da reação de síntese de Fischer-Tropsch. Com esse trabalho, contribuímos com uma maior elucidação das condições reacionais mais favoráveis para cada um dos processos analisados, estudando ainda estratégias para se obter uma maior conversão dos reagentes e aumentar a produtividade dos compostos de interesse, além de verificar o comportamento energético dos sistemas associados / Abstract: There is a growing interest in alternative sources of clean, safe and renewable energy, and in technologies for processing these sources into fuels. Among these processes, the supercritical water gasification (SCWG) reaction, for hydrogen production, and the Fischer-Tropsch (FT) synthesis reaction, for liquid fuels production, have occupied a prominent role. In this context, this thesis performed the thermodynamic analysis of reactions involved in the transformation of biomass into fuels, using for it, global optimization techniques. Methodologies are applied to minimize Gibbs energy, in systems with constant pressure and temperature, and maximize the entropy, in systems with constant pressure and enthalpy. The problems are formulated in the form of linear and nonlinear programming, and the proposed methodologies are implemented and solved in the software GAMS. The thermodynamic analysis of the transformation of different sources such as ethanol, glycerol, glucose, cellulose, lignin, sugarcane bagasse and microalgal biomass in hydrogen or syngas, through the SCWG reaction are performed first. Later, the use of syngas produced are thermodynamically evaluated for the production of liquid fuels by the Fischer-Tropsch synthesis reaction. With this work we contribute to a further elucidation of the more favorable reaction conditions for each of the cases examined, also considering strategies to increase the conversion of reactants and the productivity of the desired products, as well as the realization of the energy characterization of the processe / Doutorado / Engenharia Química / Doutor em Engenharia Química

No description available.

[pt] Neste trabalho foram sintetizadas amostras bimetálicas de cobalto e ferro suportadas em sílicas mesoporosas do tipo SBA-15 e HMS. A preparação das mesmas ocorreu pelo método de impregnação incipiente do ponto úmido com soluções aquosas de nitratos de Co e Fe para obtenção de amostras com 25% p/p total de metal. Para estudos de efeitos comparativos das diversas propriedades, amostras monometálicas de Co ou Fe foram também preparadas com o mesmo teor metálico. Para investigar o efeito de diferentes direcionadores de estrutura, duas séries da sílica mesoporosa HMS foram preparadas utilizando dois tipos de direcionadores: dodecilamina (DDA) e tetradecilamina (TDA). As amostras foram caracterizadas por medidas de fisissorção de N(2), análise de difração de Raios-X (DRX), redução com temperatura programada (RTP), microscopia eletrônica de transmissão (TEM), quimissorção de H(2) e espectroscopia fotoeletrônica de raios-X (XPS). A quantidade de metal incorporado foi estimada por espectroscopia de absorção atômica (EAA). Os suportes foram também caracterizados por análise diferencial termogravimétrica (ATG/ATD). As curvas ATG evidenciaram que os direcionadores de estrutura foram, em grande parte, removidos até 700 K. As propriedades de textura mostraram que após a introdução metálica no suporte SBA-15, a área específica, o volume de poros e o diâmetro de poro decresceram em menor extensão para a amostra bimetálica em relação às monometálicas. As análises de DRX detectaram a formação das fases de Co(3)O(4) e CoFe(2)O(4) para todas as amostras bimetálicas; sendo que para a amostra de Co-Fe/HMS (TDA), a fase a-Fe(2)O(3) foi também indicada. A presença do suporte HMS (TDA) resultou na formação de fases cristalitas de maiores dimensões. Os valores das espessuras de parede para os suportes do tipo HMS foram maiores em relação aos encontrados na literatura, sugerindo a formação de materiais mais estáveis. Os perfis de RTP foram similares entre as amostras monometálicas e bimetálicas, entretanto, maiores temperaturas de redução do óxido de cobalto na amostra bimetálica foi indicada em relação às amostras monometálicas de cobalto, no suporte HMS (TDA). Uma interação metal-suporte mais forte foi evidenciada para a amostra Co-Fe/SBA-15. As medidas de quimissorção de H(2) indicaram valores das dispersões metálicas maiores para as amostras bimetálicas em comparação as monometálicas de ferro e menores em relação às monometálicas de cobalto. A partir das micrografias obtidas por MET, foi observada uma menor formação (percentual) de aglomerados para a amostra de Co-Fe/SBA-15 em relação à de Co-Fe/HMS (DDA). O espectro Co2p resultante da análise de XPS, para a amostra bimetálica de Co-Fe/HMS (DDA) indicou a presença de Co(3)O(4). O catalisador de Co-Fe/HMS (DDA) apresentou maiores seletividades para C(5+) e álcoois em relação ao catalisador Fe/HMS (DDA) na síntese de Fischer-Tropsch. O parâmetro de probabilidade de crescimento da cadeia (a) foi maior para o catalisador bimetálico Co-Fe/HMS (DDA) em comparação ao catalisador Co-Fe/SBA-15. Ambos os catalisadores bimetálicos exibiram uma seletividade (%) maior para a fração de leves, C2-C4. / [en] In this work, cobalt and iron bimetallic samples supported on SBA-15 or HMS mesoporous sílicas were prepared by incipient wetness impregnation. Cobalt nitrate and iron salts were used to obtain samples containing 25 wt% total of metal content. Also, a series of supported monometallic cobalt or iron samples were synthesized, with the same metal loading, and compared to bimetallic ones. In order, to investigate the effect of different templates, a series of HMS sílicas have been prepared using two types of structure direction: dodecylamine (DDA) and tetradecylamine (TDA). The samples were cheracterized by N(2)-physisorption, X-ray diffraction (XRD), temperature programmed reduction (TPR), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), H(2) chemisorption and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) analysis. The amount of incorporated metal was estimated by atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS). The supports were, also, characterized by thermogravimetric (TGA), as well as differential thermal (DTA) analyses. The TGA/DTA curves showed that the templates were mainly removed until 700 K. The textural properties revealed that after metal introduction to SBA-15 support, specific area, pore volume and pore diameter decreased in a lesser extension for the bimetallic sample compared to monometallic ones. XRD measurements detected the formation of Co(3)O(4) and CoFe(2)O(4) phases for all bimetallic samples. For Co-Fe/HMS (TDA) sample, the a-Fe(2)O(3) phase formation and a higher Co(3)O(4)/CoFe(2)O(4) crystallite sizes were also observed. The wall thickness valour for HMS supports was higher than previously reported values, suggesting more stable materials. The TPR profiles indicated similar behavior between bimetallic and monometallic samples. In case of cobalt oxide on bimetallic sample, higher reduction temperatures were indicated compared to monometallic ones for HMS (TDA) support. A higher interaction metal-support was showed for Co-Fe/SBA- 15. According to hydrogen chemisorption, the bimetallic samples dispersions were higher than iron monometallic and lower than cobalt monometallic samples. From TEM microphotografs, it was observed a lesser fraction of agglomerates to Co-Fe/SBA-15 than Co-Fe/HMS (DDA) sample. XPS spectrum of Co2p region indicated the presence of Co(3)O(4) for the bimetallic sample, Co-Fe/HMS (DDA). The Fe-Co/HMS (DDA) bimetallic catalyst showed higher C(5+) and alcohols selectivities than Fe/HMS (DDA) on the Fischer-Tropsch reaction. Also, the bimetallic cobalt and iron based catalyst supported on HMS (DDA) recorded a higher value for the chain growth parameter (a) than Co-Fe/SBA-15. Both bimetallic catalysts exhibited highter selectivities (%) for lighter fractions, C2-C4.

During this PhD thesis, cobalt (Co) catalysts have been prepared, characterized and studied in the carbon monoxide hydrogenation (CO+H2) reaction (also known as “Fischer-Tropsch” (FT) reaction). In industry, the FT synthesis aims at producing long chain hydrocarbons such as gasoline or diesel fuels. The interest is that the reactants (CO and H2) are obtained from other carbonaceous sources than crude oil: natural gas, coal, biomass or even petroleum residues. As it is well known that the worldwide crude oil reserves will be depleted in a few decades, the FT reaction represents an attractive alternative for the production of various fuels. Moreover, this reaction can also be used to produce high value specialty chemicals (long chain alcohols, light olefins…).<p>Two different types of catalysts have been investigated during this thesis: cobalt with magnesia used as support or dispersant (Co/MgO) and cobalt with silica used as support (Co/SiO2). Each catalyst from the first class is prepared by precipitation of a mixed Co/Mg oxalate in acetone. This coprecipitation is followed by a thermal decomposition under reductive atmosphere leading to a mixed Co/MgO catalyst. On the other hand, Co/SiO2 catalysts are prepared by impregnation of a commercial silica support with a chloroform solution containing Co nanoparticles. This impregnation is then followed by a thermal activation under reductive atmosphere.<p>The mixed Co/Mg oxalates and the resulting Co/MgO catalysts have been extensively characterized in order to gain a better understanding of the composition, the structure and the morphology of these materials: thermal treatments under reductive and inert atmospheres (followed by MS, DRIFTS, TGA and DTA), BET surface area measurements, XRD and electron microscopy studies have been performed. Moreover, an original in situ technique for measuring the H2 chemisorption surface area of catalysts has been developed and used over our catalysts.<p>The performances of the Co/MgO and Co/SiO2 catalysts have then been evaluated in the CO+H2 reaction at atmospheric pressure. Chemical Transient Kinetics (CTK) experiments have been carried out in order to obtain information about the reaction kinetics and mechanism and the nature of the catalyst active surface under reaction conditions. The influence of several experimental parameters (temperature, H2 and CO partial pressures, total volumetric flow rate) and the effect of passivation are also discussed with regard to the catalyst behavior.<p>Our results indicate that the FT active surface of Co/MgO 10/1 (molar ratio) is entirely covered by carbon, oxygen and hydrogen atoms, most probably associated as surface complexes (possibly formate species). Thus, this active surface does not present the properties of a metallic Co surface (this has been proved by performing original experiments consisting in switching from the CO+H2 reaction to the propane hydrogenolysis reaction (C3H8+H2) which is sensitive to the metallic nature of the catalyst). CTK experiments have also shown that gaseous CO is the monomer responsible for chain lengthening in the FT reaction (and not any CHx surface intermediates as commonly believed). Moreover, CO chemisorption has been found to be irreversible under reaction conditions.<p>The CTK results obtained over Co/SiO2 are quite different and do not permit to draw sharp conclusions concerning the FT reaction mechanism. More detailed studies would have to be carried out over these samples.<p>Finally, Co/MgO catalysts have also been studied on a combined DRIFTS/MS experimental set-up in Belfast. CTK and Steady-State Isotopic Transient Kinetic Analysis (SSITKA) experiments have been carried out. While formate and methylene (CH2) groups have been detected by DRIFTS during the FT reaction, the results indicate that these species play no role as active intermediates. These formates are most probably located on MgO or at the Co/MgO interface, while methylene groups stand for skeleton CH2 in either hydrocarbon or carboxylate. Unfortunately, formate/methylene species have not been detected by DRIFTS over pure Co catalyst without MgO, because of the full signal absorption.<p> / Doctorat en Sciences de l'ingénieur / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

Ce travail met en évidence le potentiel que la technologie des plasmas présente dans l’élaboration, en une seule étape, des catalyseurs de la synthèse Fischer-Tropsch (SFT), alors que les méthodes habituelles ou conventionnelles comme l’imprégnation et la précipitation sont des voies de production multi-étapes du matériau catalytique. Les nouveaux catalyseurs ont été mis en œuvre à partir d’espèces monométalliques ayant comme support le carbone (Fe/C, Co/C) pour développer des bimétalliques (Co-Fe), des ternaires (Mo-Co-Fe, Ni-Co-Fe) qui ont été ensuite formulés avec la présence de promoteurs (Au/Ni-Co-Fe). Du fait que la préparation par plasma thermique de ces catalyseurs nanométriques supportés par le carbone soit relativement récente, cela permet d’envisager des perspectives d’applications avec des retombées industrielles, car les hautes températures caractéristiques des plasmas permettent de générer des carbures de fer (Fe3C, Fe5C2) très importants dans le processus catalytique de SFT. Des efforts de quantification de toutes les phases de carbures ont été effectués à l’aide de la diffraction des rayons X (DRX), tandis que l’analyse quantitative à l’aide du Rietveld (AQR) n’a été que partiellement concluante à cause de la taille nanométrique des matériaux étudiés qui est en dessous des limites de détection instrumental. Avec des aires spécifiques de BET comprises entre 35 et 93 m2.g-1, les catalyseurs sont typiques de matériaux poreux et présentent ainsi un avantage pour la SFT car les transformations réactionnelles ne sont pas limitées par les phénomènes de transfert de masse. La microscopie électronique à transmission (MET) et la microscopie électronique à balayage (MEB) couplées avec la Spectroscopie à rayons X à dispersion d'énergie (EDX) et la cartographie des rayons X (cartographie X) ont montré une grande dispersion des particules métalliques dans la matrice de carbone, indiquant ainsi l’absence d’agglomération sur les échantillons frais et post réactionnels. Les caractérisations par la spectroscopie Raman et la Spectroscopie photoélectronique par rayon X (XPS) ont mis en évidence un support de catalyseur essentiellement graphitique. Les analyses par la spectroscopie d’absorption des rayons X (SAX), par la spectroscopie de structure près du front d’absorption des rayons X (XANES) ont confirmé que le catalyseur Co/C obtenu par plasma contenait des carbures (Co3C) qui n’ont pu être révélés par XPS. Le test catalytique initial a été effectué en réacteur à lit fixe à 503 K (230°C), sous une pression de 3 MPa avec une vitesse volumique spatiale (VVH) de 6 000 〖cm〗^3 〖.h〗^(-1).g^(-1), pour une durée de 24 heures. Par la suite, les tests ont été performés dans un réacteur triphasique agité continu (3-φ-CSTSR) opérant de façon isotherme pendant 24 heures à des températures de 493–533 K (220–260°C), sous 2 MPa et à VVH = 3 600 〖 cm〗^3 〖.h〗^(-1).g^(-1). Tous les catalyseurs étudiés ont été actifs pour la SFT, produisant des fractions de gasoline (essence) et de diesel mais avec des sélectivités qui dépendaient de la proportion de métal présent dans le catalyseur et des conditions réactionnelles. À 493 K, le catalyseur le plus actif a été Co/C, obtenu par plasma, avec 40% de conversion qui contraste avec les 32% du meilleur catalyseur commercial Fe/C. Ces performances ont été comparées avec celles d’autres catalyseurs synthétisés par plasma Fe/C (25% de conversion) et 80%Co-20%Fe/C (10%), tandis que 50%Co-50%Fe/C, 30%Co-70%Fe/C n’ont montré aucune activité. Le catalyseur Co/C a été aussi le plus sélectif pour la formation de gasoline; mais à 533 K il a généré des quantités excessives de CH4 (46%) et CO2 (19%); ce qui a conduit à l’idée de synthétiser des bimétalliques Co-Fe/C qui ont permis d’abaisser la sélectivité en CH4 ou CO2 en dessous de 10%, pour une conversion de CO dépassant 40%. De même, les catalyseurs contenant du Ni (Ni-Co-Fe/C) ont été plus actifs avec des conversions de CO dépassant 50% avec des sélectivités en gasoline (38%) plus élevées qu’en diesel (20%). Ce catalyseur bimétallique a aussi favorisé la formation importante de CH4 (23%) et de CO2 (14%) beaucoup plus que dans le cas du solide Co-Fe/C. Globalement, le catalyseur bimétallique Co-Fe et sa variante acidifiée (exemple Mo-Co-Fe) ont été plus sélectifs en diesel (~ 55%). L’influence du prétraitement a été examinée et, selon la composition des catalyseurs, ceux qui ont été initialement réduits par CO avaient montré une amélioration de la sélectivité en diesel (50–67%); ces performances se sont avérées meilleures par rapport à celles des solides initialement réduits par H2 (45–55%). En outre, les catalyseurs aux concentrations élevées en cobalt, ainsi que ceux prétraités sous hydrogène ont généré plus d’eau que ceux prétraités ou réduits par CO. La présence d’atomes d’or comme promoteur dans le catalyseur Ni-Co-Fe/C (Au/Ni-Co-Fe/C) a non seulement ralenti l’activité de Ni-Co-Fe/C, mais aussi a diminué sa capacité à former l’eau, bien que n’ayant eu aucun impact significatif sur la sélectivité en composés hydrocarbonés. / Abstract : This work reveals the potential plasma technology presents in producing highly active catalysts for Fischer-Tropsch synthesis (FTS), while simultaneously contracting catalyst production into a single step, which is a certain departure from the traditional multi-step methods such as impregnation or precipitation. Novel catalysts proposed were carbon-based, developed from single metal (Fe/C, Co/C) to bimetallic (Co-Fe), ternary (Mo-Co-Fe, Ni-Co-Fe) and then the promoted Au/Ni-Co-Fe formulations. Since the preparation of nanometric carbon-supported catalysts by plasma is a relatively new phenomenon, it offers the Fischer-Tropsch catalysis prospects of future commercial applications, because of the high temperatures that are achieved in plasma create Fe carbides (Fe3C, Fe5C2), which are assumed to account for Fe-based FTS catalysis. An attempt to fully quantify the carbide phases in the samples by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Rietveld Quantitative Analysis (RQA) was only partially successful due to the nanometric nature of the materials existing below the instrument’s detection limits. With BET specific surface areas of 35–93 m2.g-1, the catalysts were found to be non-porous, a characteristic that is advantageous because Fischer-Tropsch reaction would operate away from mass transfer limitations. Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) coupled with Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDX) and X-ray mapping indicated high dispersion of the metal moieties in the carbon matrix, with no signs of nanoparticle agglomeration both in the fresh and used samples. Raman and X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) characterized the support as highly graphitic, mixed with amorphous carbon arising from substantial defects in the graphite. Evidence from X-ray Absorption Spectroscopy (XAS) using X-ray Absorption Near Edge Structure (XANES) analysis confirmed that plasma synthesized Co/C catalyst contained some carbides (Co3C), which went undetected by XPS. Initial catalyst testing was performed in the fixed-bed reactor at 503 K (230C), 3 MPa pressure, and gas hourly space velocity (GHSV) of 6 000 〖cm〗^3 〖.h〗^(-1).g^(-1) of catalyst for 24 h. Elaborate tests were further executed in a 3-phase continuously stirred-tank slurry reactor (3-φ-CSTSR) isothermally operated between 493–533 K (220–260°C) at 2 MPa pressure, and GHSV = 3 600 〖cm〗^3 〖.h〗^(-1).g^(-1) of catalyst, for 24 h. It was observed that all catalysts were active for FTS, producing both gasoline and diesel fractions, but selectivity depended on the amount of metal in the catalyst or the reaction conditions. The most active catalyst at 493 K was the plasma-synthesized Co/C that showed 40% CO conversion, which was benchmarked against the commercial Fe/C at 32%. This performance was compared to the plasma-synthesized Fe/C (25% CO conversion) and 80%Co-20%Fe/C (10% CO conversion), while both the 50%Co-50%Fe/C and 30%Co-70%Fe/C were inactive. The plasma-synthesized Co/C was also more selective towards the gasoline fraction, but at 533 K it generated excessive CH4 (46%) and CO2 (19%) prompting the development of the Co-Fe/C bimetallics, which exhibited less than 10% selectivity towards CH4 or CO2 at over 40% CO conversion. Similarly, Ni-containing catalysts (Ni-Co-Fe/C) were relatively more active than the bimetallics, exhibiting over 50% CO conversion with higher selectivity towards the gasoline fraction (38%) than towards diesel (20%). The Ni-Co-Fe/C catalysts also produced excessive CH4 (23%) and CO2 (14%), than the Co-Fe/C bimetallics. Overall, the Co-Fe bimetallics and the acidified Co-Fe catalyst (i.e. Mo-Co-Fe/C) were more selective towards diesel formation (~55%). When the effect of pre-treatment medium was investigated, depending on catalyst composition, the CO-reduced catalysts showed enhanced selectivity for diesel fraction (50–67%) than catalysts reduced in H2 (45–55%). In addition, it was observed that catalysts containing high concentration of Co as well as those reduced in H2 generated more H2O than those reduced in CO, and the presence of Au (that is, in Ni-Co-Fe/C) not only depressed the Ni-Co-Fe/C catalyst activity, but it also lowered its capacity to form H2O, although it had no significant impact on the catalyst’s hydrocarbon selectivity.

A influência de variáveis do banho na composição, microestrutura e nas propriedades magnéticas de filmes de CoB preparados por deposição química foi estudada. Dois diferentes tipos de agentes complexantes foram utilizados: citrato de sódio e Glicina. Filmes com menor teor de boro foram obtidos com o uso de Glicina como complexante. A deposição de Co é acelerada em presença de Glicina ou de amônia no banho, porque ambos evitam a diminuição do pH na interface solução/filme de CoB em crescimento. A coercividade dos filmes variou em função do teor de boro, sendo que filmes com maior teor de boro apresentaram mais baixa coercividade. Catalisadores de Co/Al2O3 são utilizados na síntese de combustíveis à partir de derivados do Gás Natural (Síntese de Fischer-Tropsch - SFT). O processo usual de preparação destes catalisadores, denominado impregnação úmida, consiste na impregnação do substrato em solução de sal de Co(II), secagem/calcinação e redução com H2 a 300/350 &#176;C. Uma fração considerável do Co não é reduzida à fase metálica na etapa de redução, o que resulta em perdas de área ativa para a catálise da SFT. Normalmente pequenas quantidades de metais preciosos tais como Pt, Ru ou Pd são adicionadas para catalisar a redução dos óxidos de cobalto e aumentar a área superficial ativa do catalisador, o que representa um grande incremento no custo destes catalisadores. Nesta tese, foram investigadas duas propostas alternativas de solução para este problema: a preparação de catalisadores de Co por deposição química sobre Al2O3 e a preparação pelo método usual, mas com adição de pequenas quantidades de Cu,Ag e Au, dos quais Cu e Ag têm custo mais baixo do que os metais preciosos normalmente utilizados. Co foi depositado quimicamente sobre &#947;-Al2O3, previamente ativada com pequenas quantidades de Pd, utilizando NaBH4 como redutor. Uma amostra de catalisador de CoB/PdAl2O3 (contendo 13,4 % em massa de Co e c.a. 25% at. de boro) foi obtida e caracterizada por RTP, Quimissorção de H2 e XRD, assim como foram efetuados testes de SFT sob diferentes temperaturas de ativação. Para efeito de comparação, foi preparado por impregnação úmida uma amostra de Co/PdAl2O3 contendo 11% em massa de Co, sobre a mesma alumina ativada com Pd utilizada na preparação dos catalisadores de CoB/PdAl2O3. Embora a amostra de catalisador de CoB/PdAl2O3 tenha tido menor área superficial ativa do que a amostra de catalisador de Co/PdAl2O3, sua atividade catalítica foi sensivelmente maior. Essa diferença pode ser explicada supondo-se que o boro é solubilizado durante a reação, deixando uma fase de Co metálico altamente dispersa. Catalisadores de Co/Al2O3 promovidos por metais do grupo 11 foram preparados por impregnação úmida. Além da caracterização por RTP, Quimissorção de H2/titulação de O2 e XRD, a estrutura das amostras de catalisador foi estudada por XANES/EXAFS. Dos resultados de EXAFS e do fato de que altos teores de Cu e Au levaram à desativação do catalisador, é sugerido que durante a redução, o promotor é segregado para a superfície das partículas de Co. Dos três metais testados, Ag e Au apresentaram maior efeito promotor da atividade catalítica, proporcionando maior área superficial ativa para catálise da SFT. Não houve modificações importantes na seletividade dos catalisadores por conta da presença destes metais. / The influence of bath composition on the boron content, microstructure and magnetic properties CoB films deposited by chemical deposition was studied. Two different complexing agents were used in this study: sodium citrate and Glycine. CoB films with lower boron content were obtained with the use of a Glycine containing bath. The Co deposition is accelerated when either Glycine or ammonia is present in the solution because both substances prevent the decrease of the pH in the region near the CoB film/solution interface. The coercivity of the films varied in function of the boron content, as films with larger boron contents showed lower coercivities. Co/Al2O3 is used as a catalyst for the synthesis of liquid fuels from either coal or natural gas derivatives (Fischer Tropsch Synthesis FTS). The usual preparation procedure of such catalysts, known as wet impregnation, consists in the Al2O3 impregnation with a Co(II) aqueous solution, water evaporation/calcination and reduction with H2 at 300/350 &#176;C. A considerable fraction of the cobalt oxides formed during calcination is not reduced to Co0 during reduction and this leads to active area loss. Normally, small quantities of precious metals like Pt, Ru or Pd are added to promote the reduction of cobalt oxides and therefore increase the active area of the Co/Al2O33 catalyst, yet these metals are extremely expansive. In this thesis, two different approaches to solve this problem are presented: the preparation of Co/Al2O3 by chemical deposition of the metallic phase and the use of Cu, Ag or Au (from which, Cu and Ag are cheaper metals) as promoters on wet impregnation prepared Co/Al2O3 catalysts. Cobalt was chemically deposited on &#947;-Al2O3, activated with a small quantity of Pd, with NaBH4 as a reducing agent. The resulting CoB/PdAl2O3 sample (with 13,4 % wt. Co and approximately 25 % at. of boron) was characterized by TPR, H2 Chemisorption and XRD, as well as SFT tests were made with the catalyst at different pre-reduction temperatures. For the sake of comparison a Co/PdAl2O3 catalyst sample with almost the same Co loading (11 % wt.) was prepared by wet impregnation on the same Pd-activated Al2O3 used to prepare the CoB/PdAl2O3 sample. Although the CoB/PdAl2O3 has a smaller active surface area (measured by H2 Chemisorption) than that of the Co/PdAl2O3 sample, it presented a much higher catalytic activity for the SFT. This difference may be explained assuming that boron impurities (present in the catalyst as boron oxides) is solubilized during the reaction leaving a highly dispersed Co phase. Group 11 promoted Co/Al2O3 catalysts were prepared by wet impregnation and characterized by TPR, H2 Chemisorption/O2 pulse oxidation, XRD and XANES/EXAFS. From the EXAFS results and from the fact that higher loadings of Cu and Au lead to catalyst deactivation, it is proposed that in the reduced catalyst the SFT inactive promoter is segregated to the surface. Silver and Gold were the most active in promoting Co reduction and therefore increasing catalytic activity for the SFT. No important modification in the selectivity of the reaction was observed.

Há uma demanda global pelo abastecimento de combustíveis veiculares menos poluentes, tanto por questões energéticas quanto sócio-ambientais. Uma potencial alternativa, que traduz a possibilidade de um biocombustível sem as limitações da Primeira Geração, é a rota tecnológica conhecida como Biomass-to-Liquids (BTL) que, através da gaseificação e da síntese Fischer-Tropsch, possibilita a obtenção de biocombustíveis líquidos, como o óleo diesel sintético, provenientes da biomassa moderna, nesse estudo, a biomassa lignocelulósica. Para a produção em escala comercial de um biocombustível da Segunda Geração, um complexo planejamento e altos investimentos são demandados dado seu pioneirismo e ausência de histórico de mercado ou modelos precisos. Uma metodologia desenvolvida em 2006 pelo pesquisador Harold Boerrigter propõe o dimensionamento ideal de uma planta BTL a partir de uma planta Gas-to-Liquids (GTL); são aqui propostas correções e atualizações para esta metodologia, sugerindo-se uma curva capaz de apontar a influência da economia de escala em plantas BTL e uma fórmula para o cálculo estimado do Total Capital Investment (TCI) destas plantas até o momento o Brasil não dispõe de nenhuma planta que opere pela rota BTL. Segue-se com considerações sobre a oferta de resíduos florestais no território brasileiro e a constatação de que a mesma seria insuficiente como matéria-prima para sustentar grandes plantas BTL, fazendo-se necessário o emprego de culturas planejadas na forma de florestas energéticas. Uma vez feita tal análise, apresenta-se o histórico, desde sua concepção até o seu fechamento, da primeira planta a operar pela rota BTL e a produzir o designer fuel batizado de SunDiesel®: construída na Alemanha, a CHOREN Industritechnik contribui com sua experiência de anos e também com a tecnologia de gaseificação Carbo-V® para as pesquisas com os biocombustíveis sintéticos. Seu exemplo pode sinalizar um alerta com relação ao dispêndio de esforços em projetos desta natureza dadas as incertezas econômicas que circundam as fronteiras tecnológicas dos combustíveis da Segunda Geração. / There is a global demand for the supply of less polluting vehicular fuels as much by energy issues as socio-environmental. A potential alternative meaning the possibility of a biofuel without the limitations from the First Generation is the technological route known as Biomass-to-Liquids (BTL) which via gasification and the Fischer-Tropsch synthesis turns possible to obtain liquid biofuels such synthetic diesel oil from modern biomass, in this study, the lignocellulosic biomass. For commercial-scale production of a Second Generation biofuel, a complex planning and high investments are required given its pioneering and absence of market history or precise models. A methodology developed in 2006 by researcher Harold Boerrigter proposes the ideal sizing for a BTL plant assuming a Gas-to-Liquids (GTL) plant; here are proposed corrections and updates for this methodology, suggesting a curve able to point the influence of economy of scale in BTL plants and a formula for the calculation of an estimated Total Capital Investment (TCI) of these plants by the present time Brazil has no plant operating by BTL route. The research follows up with issues regarding forest residues provision in the Brazilian territory and conlcuding that the same would be insufficient as a raw material to sustain large BTL plants, making necessary the use of planned crops in the form of energy forests. Once made such analysis, it is presented the history since its beginning until its closing for the first plant to operate by the BTL route and to produce the designer fuel called SunDiesel®: built in Germany, the CHOREN Industritechnik contributes with its experience of years and also with the gasification technology Carbo-V® for researches with synthetic biofuels. Such example may indicates an alert regarding the expenditure of efforts on projects of this nature, given the economic uncertainties that surround the Second Generation fuels technological frontiers.

Devido à sua natureza, o gás natural (GN) tem na distância aos pontos de consumo um obstáculo para sua utilização, a qual vai além simples queima para geração de energia ou obtenção de calor. Portanto, é importante que sejam discutidos novos métodos para distribuí-lo e transformá-lo em fontes de energia de maior valor agregado ou em matéria-prima para fabricação de produtos a serem utilizados na indústria química. Uma opção é a conversão do GN em combustíveis líquidos de pronto uso como óleo diesel, gasolina e querosene de aviação através da rota Gas-To-Liquids (GTL). O presente trabalho avalia o potencial da tecnologia GTL no contexto do crescimento da oferta de gás natural no Brasil pelos gasodutos Rota 2 e Rota 3, contextualizando o cenário brasileiro desse energético, as perspectivas futuras e o estado da tecnologia GTL com o processo Fisher-Tropsch. Para tanto, é simulado e analisado o desempenho econômico de uma planta de diesel GTL operante por 30 anos em cenários de preços de insumo e produto obtidos por projeções de reconhecimento internacional. / The usage of natural gás (NG) is related to the distance to the final customers, that is a real obstacle to its full utilization which is beyond the usage as fuel for electricity or heat generation. It is important to prospect, analyze and propose new methods for distribution and transformation of this important energy suppy to more value added products or special raw material for the chemical industry. The transformation in ready for use liquid fuels like diesel, gasoline and kerosene through the gas-to-liquid route (GTL) is one of the options. This dissertation evaluates the GTL technology in a context of the NG additional volume available through 2 new pipelines coming from offshore, Rota 2 and Rota 3 in the Brazilian context of NG current usage and its future perspectives taking advantage of this additional availability via the traditional and long term tested GTL Fischer-Tropsch (FT) technology. A GTL FT Diesel plant operating for 30 years was taken as an example considering different scenarios for NG and Oil prices retrieved from the IEA data base that is internationally considered as a consistent source of information.

Este trabalho tem como objetivo traçar um panorama geral da tecnologia de gaseificação ao longo da história. Inicialmente concebida para obter gás do carvão mineral e possibilitar uma iluminação pública mais eficiente, a gaseificação passou por várias fases. Na virada do século XIX para o XX, quando o town gas perdeu a iluminação pública para a eletricidade, a produção de gás passou a se voltar para aquecimento e cocção. Se novas possibilidades foram criadas a partir da descoberta da síntese de Fischer-Tropsch (que possibilitava a transformação do gás de síntese em líquidos que poderiam substituir combustíveis e matérias-primas para toda a cadeia petroquímica), a resolução dos problemas de logística do gás natural reduziu a importância do gás do carvão mineral também para o aquecimento e cocção. Crises de abastecimento de petróleo, o principal combustível do século XX, motivaram novas iniciativas e novas formas de utilização da gaseificação como, por exemplo, os gasogênios, que gaseificavam biomassa e carvão para movimentar veículos automotores especialmente durante a Segunda Grande Guerra. Já nos períodos de abundância de petróleo a tecnologia acabava por ser abandonada, uma vez que este era muito mais eficiente e conveniente. Na passagem do século XX para o século XXI, entretanto, as preocupações com as mudanças climáticas colocaram em cheque a contínua utilização de combustíveis fósseis entre os quais o petróleo. Nesse contexto abriu-se uma nova perspectiva para a gaseificação de biomassa, uma vez que esta, combinada com as possibilidades criadas pela síntese de Fischer-Tropsch, possibilitou a criação do conceito de biorrefinarias e de toda uma cadeia química a partir de matérias-primas não apenas renováveis, mas que também são residuais e não alimentares. Embora ainda haja desafios técnicos e, principalmente, econômicos a serem alcançados, outros desafios deste século além da questão climática -, os resíduos sólidos urbanos podem constituir-se em uma importante fonte de insumos para o processo de gaseificação. / This dissertation aims to deliver a systematic approach of the history of gasification process. Initially conceived to obtain coal gas to viabilize more efficient lighting for major cities, the gasification process has passed through several phases. During the Nineteenth Century, the town gas (the gas obtained from coal) has revolutionized night life in modern cities. At the turn of the Nineteenth Century, town gas lost public lighting to electricity, and gas from coal had to migrate to heating and cooking. New possibilities were created with the Fischer-Tropsch synthesis in the twenties. This process enabled the transformation of Syngas a product of the gasification process into any kind of hydrocarbon molecule. So, it could have been a useful substitute to oil, mainly during the oil supply crisis. The Twentieth Century was characterized by intense oil utilization in transport, mechanical forces, electricity generation and also creating products like plastic and asphalt. Gasification was seen as a very good alternative supply of raw material for these products, but in fact, the several oil supply crisis of the Twentieth Century were too short for make the gasification feasible. At the end of twentieth century another issue arose to boost gasification initiatives: climate change. Due the greenhouse effect and concerns about its consequences, researchers and companies started projects of biomass gasification to replace fossil fuels - which includes oil. So far, all these initiatives havent shown up as feasible in commercial production, but the opportunity to create a fossil oil substitute from non food raw materials still involves a lot of effort.