O uso problemático de substâncias psicoativas (SPA) tem aumentado significativamente nos últimos anos. Os Transtornos Relacionados a Substâncias (TRS) têm sido associados a uma série de prejuízos cognitivos e comportamentais, dentre os quais destacam-se as disfunções executivas e os déficits envolvendo o controle dos impulsos. A presente tese teve como objetivo investigar as funções executivas, o controle inibitório e a agressividade em indivíduos com Transtornos por uso de álcool e crack. O propósito desta pesquisa foi o de investigar a cognição e o comportamento em amostras distintas de dependentes, visto que são poucos os estudos nessa área enfocando os perfis de déficits cognitivos e comportamentais de acordo com a droga de abuso. Essa tese é composta por um estudo de revisão da literatura e dois estudos empíricos. Foram avaliados 67 homens, com idades entre 18 - 65 anos, divididos em quarto grupos: dependentes de álcool, dependentes de crack, dependentes de álcool + crack e grupo controle. Os dependentes de álcool e/ou crack encontravam-se em abstinência e estavam internados em um programa de tratamento gratuito e voluntário de um Hospital Geral. O protocolo de pesquisa incluiu medidas psicológicas e neuropsicológicas. Os principais resultados deste estudo indicaram prejuízos das funções executivas e do controle inibitório e níveis mais elevados de agressividade nos grupos de dependentes, quando comparados ao grupo controle, tendo esses índices variado de acordo com a droga de abuso. Entre os indivíduos que faziam uso de álcool esses índices foram mais rebaixados, sugerindo que o consumo dessa substância pode estar associado a um maior comprometimento das habilidades de autorregulação e autocontrole. / The problematic use of psychoactive substances has increased significantly in recent years. The Substance-Related Disorders have been linked to a series of cognitive and behavioral impairments, among which is the executive dysfunction and deficits involving impulse control. This thesis aimed to investigate the executive functions, inhibitory control and aggression in individuals with alcohol and crack disorders. The choice of this theme aimed to investigate cognition and behavior in different dependent samples, since there are few studies in this area focusing on the profiles of cognitive and behavioral deficits according to the drug of abuse. This thesis is composed by a review of the literature study and two empirical studies. They were evaluated 67 men, aged 18 -65 years, divided into four groups: alcohol dependents, crack dependents, alcohol + crack dependents and control group. The alcohol and / or crack dependents were in abstinence and were inpatients in a free and voluntary treatment program of a General Hospital. The research protocol included psychological and neuropsychological measures. The main results of this study indicated losses of executive functions and inhibitory control and higher levels of aggression in dependent groups compared to the control group, and these impairments varied according to the drug of abuse. Alcohol dependents showed decreased performance, suggesting that alcohol consumption may be associated with a decrease of self-regulation and self-control skills.

No que diz respeito ao bilinguismo infantil, é grande o número de investigações que comprovam que o uso diário de duas ou mais línguas leva a um desenvolvimento acentuado de certos processos cognitivos (como a atenção seletiva e o controle inibitório), linguísticos e metalinguísticos em comparação com crianças monolíngues de mesma faixa etária (BIALYSTOK, 2001, 2005, 2006, dentre outros). Entretanto, assume-se que tais vantagens são evidentes apenas quando se trata de crianças bilíngues nativas ou com proficiência avançada nas duas línguas faladas. Nesse contexto se insere o presente estudo, que se propôs a investigar os efeitos cognitivos do bilinguismo no desenvolvimento do controle inibitório em um grupo de crianças que estudam em um contexto de escolaridade bilíngue, ou seja, crianças cuja segunda língua é aprendida e vivenciada exclusivamente em contexto escolar, em comparação com bilíngues que aprenderam a segunda língua em contexto familiar ou na comunidade em que vivem, população normalmente testada em experimentos desse tipo. Para isso, foram testadas 174 crianças entre 9 e 12 anos, sendo 75 oriundas de contexto escolar bilíngue (português/inglês), 57 de contexto familiar bilíngue (português/hunsrückisch) e 42 monolíngues do português. Duas tarefas que avaliam controle inibitório foram utilizadas: a Tarefa Simon de flechas e a Tarefa Stroop. Os resultados sugerem que as crianças que estudam em contexto escolar bilíngue, que são expostas e empregam a segunda língua diariamente, embora somente na escola, também parecem se beneficiar de uma experiência bilíngue. / Recent research on childhood bilingualism has indicated that the daily use of two or more languages sharpens the development of certain cognitive processes, such as selective attention and inhibitory control, as well as linguistic and metalinguistic processes, in bilingual children when compared to monolingual children of the same age (BIALYSTOK, 2001, 2005, 2006, amongst others). However, this advantage has only been observed with native bilingual children, or children with very high proficiency in both languages. To fill this gap, the present study aimed to investigate the effect of bilingualism on inhibitory control in bilingual children who experience bilingualism (or second language learning) exclusively in a school context, compared to the usual sample of bilingual children who experience bilingualism at home or in the community. Thus, 174 children of ages 9 to 12 from three different linguistic groups (75 school bilinguals; 57 home bilinguals and 42 monolinguals) participated in the study. Children completed both the Simon Arrows and the Stroop Tasks to assess their inhibitory control with both non-linguistic and linguistic stimuli. Results suggest that bilingual children from a school context, who deal with both languages on a daily basis, although only at school, also show cognitive advantages due to a bilingual experience.

As fases da pré-adolescência e adolescência são complexas porque englobam diversas mudanças nos indivíduos, se passa por rápido crescimento físico, alteração hormonal, mudanças no ambiente social e nas exigências. Estas fases são caracterizadas por comportamentos de risco por falta de controle inibitório, que está relacionado ao córtex pré- frontal, última área a se desenvolver do sistema nervoso. Há também a experimentação de álcool e drogas durante a adolescência e puberdade. Este trabalho realizou três estudos que abrangeram a temática do controle inibitório na pré-adolescência e adolescência. O primeiro foi uma revisão sistemática a respeito da avaliação do controle inibitório na adolescência e uso de neuroimagem. O segundo investigou a relação do consumo de álcool na adolescência com uso excessivo de bebidas alcóolicas dos pais. E o terceiro objetivou avaliar a impulsividade, controle inibitório e consumo de álcool em indivíduos de 10 a 16 anos. Os três artigos sugeriram um padrão de maior controle inibitório ao longo do desenvolvimento na fase da adolescência. Ainda foi possível observar que as bebidas alcóolicas têm sido consumidas cada vez mais precocemente e em maiores quantidades. Além disso, o consumo excessivo de álcool dos pais de adolescentes pode influenciar no consumo dos filhos nesta fase. / Stages of pre-adolescence and adolescence are complex because they involve several changes in individuals, they pass through a fast physical growth, hormonal changes, changes in the social environment and the requirements. These phases are characterized by risk behavior for lack of inhibitory control, which is related to the prefrontal cortex, the last area to develop the nervous system. There are also experimenting with alcohol and drugs during adolescence and puberty. This work conducted three studies which approached the inhibitory control in preadolescence and adolescence. The first was a systematic review regarding the inhibitory control assessment in adolescence and use of neuroimaging. The second investigated the relationship of alcohol consumption in adolescence with excessive use of alcohol from parents. And the third was aimed at evaluating impulsivity, inhibitory control and alcohol consumption in individuals 10-16 years. The three articles suggested a pattern of greater inhibitory control over development in adolescence. Although it was observed that the alcoholic beverages have been consumed ever earlier and in larger quantities. In addition, excessive alcohol consumption of parents of teenagers can influence the consumption of children at this stage.

Estudos anteriores apresentaram evidências de um desempenho superior de indivíduos bilíngues em tarefas não verbais que faziam exigências em termos de controle inibitório (BIALYSTOK; CRAIK; RYAN, 2006; BIALYSTOK; CRAIK; LUK, 2008) e de memória de trabalho (BIALYSTOK; CRAIK; KLEIN; VISWANATHAN; 2004). Entretanto, a maioria dos estudos na literatura da área apresenta resultados relativos à comparação entre bilíngues e monolíngues (falantes de inglês) que vivem em grandes centros urbanos e possuem muitos anos de escolaridade. O presente trabalho se propõe a investigar uma população bilíngue bastante representativa no Brasil e ainda pouco investigada. Para tanto, verificou-se o desempenho de adultos e idosos bilíngues em comparação com monolíngues em termos de controle inibitório e memória de trabalho aferidos a partir de duas versões da Tarefa Simon (de flechas e quadrados) e uma versão do Teste Stroop. Os resultados encontrados não revelaram uma vantagem bilíngue significativa em termos de controle inibitório, nem em termos de memória de trabalho, e os participantes mais jovens foram mais rápidos e acurados na maioria das tarefas. Os resultados encontrados são discutidos em termos de níveis de escolaridade, tipo de experiência bilíngue e validade das tarefas utilizadas. / Previous studies have suggested higher efficiency of bilinguals on nonverbal tasks associated with inhibitory control (BIALYSTOK; CRAIK; RYAN, 2006; BIALYSTOK; CRAIK; LUK, 2008) and working memory (BIALYSTOK; CRAIK; KLEIN; VISWANATHAN; 2004). However, most of the studies report the performance of bilinguals and monolinguals (English speakers) that live in large urban centers and have high levels of formal education. This study aimed at investigating the effects of bilingualism on a representative population of Brazilian bilinguals. Two versions of the Simon Task and one version of the Stroop Task were used to assess inhibitory control and working memory in adults and older adults. The results did not show a significant bilingual advantage in terms of inhibitory control or working memory and younger participants were faster and more accurate in most of the tasks. The results are discussed in terms of educational levels, type of bilingual experience and task validity.

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60 (44 in the final sample) full-time or part-time employed or full-time student participants at the University of Central Florida were recruited to see whether a break in virtual nature will help improve upon executive functioning (EF) processing speed; especially in an EF impaired population. The main interest is that if virtual nature breaks aid with mental performance, then the application of virtual nature break can prove beneficial to both normal and, most importantly, the cognitively impaired. The lack of methodological consistency and the limited research on the subject yields mixed results in previous literature. The present study tries to address some of these gaps. Participants had to fill out a demographics survey, perform a cognitive load (Mental Rotation Task) and processing speed task (Stroop Color-Word Task), and then engage in a simulated 15-minute break in nature (video & sounds). Afterwards, they performed the processing speed task again to measure for change. The results failed to demonstrate that a moderately short break consisting of a nature video helps boost EF performance in the normal group. Those who demonstrated impairment in EF in the treatment group had to small of a sample size to be tested on. Numerous limitations and weak statistical power, especially in the impaired group, calls into question the validity of the study. As a result, the study findings are inconclusive.

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Age affects hearing and cognitive abilities. Older people, with and without hearing impairment (HI), exhibit difficulties in hearing speech in noise. Elderly individuals show greater difficulty in segregating target speech from distracting background noise, especially if the noise is competing speech with meaningful contents, so called informational maskers. Working memory capacity (WMC) has proven to be a crucial factor in comprehending speech in noise, especially for people with hearing loss. In auditory scenes where speech is disrupted by competing speech, high WMC has proven to facilitate the ability to segregate target speech and inhibit responses to irrelevant information. People with low WMC are more prone to be disrupted by competing speech and exhibit more difficulties in hearing target speech in complex listening environments. Furthermore, elderly individuals with a HI experience more difficulties in switching attention between wanted and irrelevant stimuli, and they employ more resources and time to attend to the stimuli than do normally - hearing (NH) younger adults. This thesis investigated the importance of inhibitory control and WMC for speech recognition in noise, and perceived listening effort. Four studies were conducted. In the first study, the aim was to develop a test of inhibitory control for verbal content, and to investigate the relation between inhibitory control and WMC, and how these two abilities related to speech recognition in noise, in young normally – hearing (YNH) individuals. In the second study we aimed to investigate the same relationship as in the first study to further strengthen the validity of the inhibitory test developed, as well as the importance of lexical access. It was also an aim to investigate the influence of age and hearing status on lexical access and WMC, and their respective roles for speech recognition in noise in both YNH and elderly HI (EHI) individuals. Study one and two showed that, for YNH, inhibitory control was related to speech recognition in noise, indicating that inhibitory control can help to predict speech recognition in noise performance. The relationship between WMC and speech recognition in noise in YNH shifted in the studies, suggesting that this relationship is multifaceted and varying. Lexical access was of little importance for YNH, although for EHI individuals, both WMC and lexical access was of importance for speech recognition in noise, suggesting that different cognitive abilities were of importance for the YNH and EHI individuals Study three investigated the relationship between inhibitory control, WMC, speech recognition in noise, and perceived listening effort, in YNH and elderly, for their age, NH, individuals (ENH). In study four the same relationships as in study three were investigated, albeit in EHI individuals. Two speech materials with different characteristics, masked with four background noises were used. The results in study three showed that less favourable SNRs were needed for informational maskers than for maskers without semantic content. ENH individuals were more susceptible to informational maskers than YNH individuals. In contrast, in study four, more favourable SNRs were needed for informational maskers. In both studies, results showed that speech recognition in noise performance differed depending on the characteristics of the speech material. The studies showed that high WMC, compared to low WMC, was beneficial for speech recognition in noise, especially for informational maskers, and resulted in lower ratings of perceived effort. Varying results were found in study three and four regarding perceived effort and inhibitory control. In study three good inhibitory control was associated with lower effort rating, while in study four, individuals with a HI and good inhibitory control rated effort as higher. The results suggest that hearing status, age, and cognitive abilities, contribute to the differences in performance between YNH, ENH, and EHI individuals in speech – recognition – in – noise - and cognitive tasks. This thesis has, for the first time, demonstrated that a measure of inhibitory control of verbal content, is related to speech recognition in noise performance in YNH, ENH and EHI individuals. Results presented in this thesis also show that both WMC and inhibitory control are related to an individuals’ perception of how effortful a listening task is. It also adds to the literature that WMC is related to speech recognition in noise performance for ENH and EHI individuals, but that this relationship is not as robust in YNH individuals. / Ålder påverkar hörseln och de kognitiva förmågorna. Äldre personer, med och utan hörselnedsättning, uppvisar ofta svårigheter att höra tal i miljöer med bakgrundsljud. De uppvisar större svårigheter att urskilja en måltalare, speciellt om det omgivande ljudet består av annat tal med meningsfullt innehåll, så kallad informationsmaskering. Arbetsminne har visat sig vara en viktig faktor för att förstå tal – i – brus, framför allt för personer med hörselnedsättning. I ljudmiljöer där tal störs av andra talkällor är hög arbetsminneskapacitet av vikt för att understödja förmågan att urskilja måltalaren från de störande talkällorna genom att underlätta inhiberingen av irrelevant information. Individer med lägre arbetsminneskapacitet är mer benägna att störas av andra talkällor, och har svårare att uppfatta måltalaren i komplexa lyssningssituationer. Vidare upplever äldre personer med hörselnedsättning att det är svårare att skifta uppmärksamheten mellan relevant och irrelevant stimuli, och de använder mer resurser och tid till omgivande stimuli än, ex. yngre individer med normal hörsel. I den här avhandlingen undersöktes vikten av inhibitionskontroll och arbetsminne vid taluppfattning i brus och upplevelsen av lyssningsansträngning. Fyra studier genomfördes. Syftet med första studien var att utveckla ett test för verbal inhibitionskontroll, och att undersöka relationen mellan inhibitionskontroll, arbetsminneskapacitet, och deras koppling till taluppfattning i brus hos yngre normalhörande personer. I studie två undersöktes ovanstående relationer för att vidare styrka validiteten för testet av inhibitionskontroll, samt vikten av lexikal åtkomst. Vidare syfte var att undersöka ålderns och hörselns inverkan på lexikal åtkomst och arbetsminneskapacitet, och deras respektive roller för taluppfattning i brus hos både yngre normalhörande och äldre hörselnedsatta personer. Studie ett och två visade att inhibitionskontroll var relaterad till taluppfattning i brus för yngre normalhörande personer, vilket indikerar att inhibitionskontroll kan användas för att underlätta att förutsäga förmågan att uppfatta tal – i – brus. Relationen mellan arbetsminneskapacitet och taluppfattning i brus hos yngre normalhörande var inte solid, vilket tyder på att relationen är mångsidig och skiftande. Lexikal åtkomst var av mindre betydelse för yngre normalhörande personer, ehuru hos äldre hörselskadade personer var både arbetsminneskapacitet och lexikal åtkomst viktigt för taluppfattning i brus. Detta tyder på att olika kognitiva förmågor var betydelsefulla för taluppfattningen i brus för yngre normalhörande och äldre hörselskadade personer. Studie tre undersökte relationen mellan inhibitionskontroll, arbetsminneskapacitet, taluppfattning i brus, och upplevd lyssningsansträngning hos yngre och äldre, för sin ålder, normalhörande personer. Två talmaterial med olika karakteristika användes och maskerades med fyra olika bakgrundsbrus. Resultatet visade att mindre gynnsamma signal – brus - förhållanden uppnåddes när informationsmaskering användes jämfört med brus utan semantiskt innehåll. Äldre normalhörande personer var mer mottagliga för informationsmaskering än yngre normalhörande personer. Hög arbetsminneskapacitet och god inhibitionskontroll var förmånliga för taluppfattning i brus, och resulterade i mindre upplevd lyssningsansträngning, jämfört med personer med lägre arbetsminneskapacitet och sämre inhibitionskontroll. Resultaten talar för att åldersrelaterade tillbakagångar i hörförmåga och, vissa, kognitiva förmågor, bidrar till skillnaderna i prestation mellan yngre och äldre normalhörande personer när det gäller förmågan att uppfatta tal - i - brus. Studie fyra undersökte samma relationer som i studie tre, ehuru hos äldre personer med mild – måttlig sensorineural hörselnedsättning. Resultaten visade att förmågan att uppfatta tal - i - brus varierade beroende på talmaterialets karakteristika, samt vilket bakgrundsbrus som användes. Hög arbetsminneskapacitet och god inhibitionskontroll var fördelaktiga för taluppfattningen, i synnerhet när informationsmaskering användes. Personer med högt arbetsminne upplevde mindre lyssningsansträngning, medan god inhibitionskontroll associerades med högre upplevd lyssningsansträngning. I föreliggande avhandling har det, för första gången, påvisats att verbal inhibitionskontroll relaterar till förmågan att uppfatta tal – i – brus hos yngre och äldre normalhörande, och äldre personer med hörselnedsättning. Resultaten som presenterats i avhandlingen visar att både arbetsminneskapacitet och inhibitionskontroll är associerade med en individs upplevelse av hur ansträngande en lyssningssituation är. Avhandlingen stödjer även tidigare forskning som visar på att arbetsminneskapaciteten är relaterad till förmågan att uppfatta tal – i – brus hos äldre  normalhörande, och äldre hörselskadade personer, men att denna relation inte är lika solid för yngre normalhörande personer.

Les personnes vieillissantes doivent composer au quotidien avec des douleurs chroniques. Le but de ce travail est de mieux comprendre les mécanismes sous-jacents qui contribueraient aux douleurs chroniques liées au vieillissement et par là, ouvrir un chemin vers de nouvelles perspectives thérapeutiques. Les contrôles inhibiteurs diffus nociceptifs (CIDN) ont un rôle qui n’est pas des moindres dans le contrôle de la douleur. Des études expérimentales examinant l’effet analgésique de la contre stimulation hétérotopique nociceptive (HNCS), un protocole permettant de tester l’efficacité de ces CIDN, suggèrent que le recrutement des CIDN au sein de cette population était plus faible (i.e. moins d’inhibition) comparé à une population plus jeune. En revanche, les études examinant la sensibilisation centrale induite par sommation temporelle (TS) de la douleur rapportent des résultats mitigés. De plus, une composante importante influençant l’expérience de douleur, les ressources cognitives, dont l’inhibition cognitive, se voient aussi décliner avec l’âge. Premièrement, le recrutement des CIDN a été comparé entre des participants sains, jeunes et des plus âgés avec la HNCS, et le recrutement des mécanismes de sensibilisation centrale avec la TS. La stimulation électrique du nerf sural a été choisie pour permettre de quantifier la douleur, tout en prenant une mesure indicative de la nociception spinale qu’est le réflexe nociceptif spinal (RIII). Nos sujets ont aussi participé à une tâche cognitive (le Stroop), testant l’inhibition cognitive. Deuxièmement, l’efficacité des CIDN ainsi que de l’inhibition cognitive a été testée chez les jeunes et les aînés en imagerie par résonance magnétique (IRM), afin de vérifier la relation entre ces deux mesures psychophysiques et l’épaisseur corticale des régions qui y sont impliquées ainsi que l’effet de l’âge sur celles-ci. Les résultats suggèrent un moindre recrutement des CIDN chez les plus âgés lors de l’expérimentation de la HNCS. Également, les sujets âgés présentaient des capacités d’inhibitions cognitives plus faibles que les jeunes. En plus, une corrélation entre l’inhibition cognitive et la modulation du réflexe RIII par la HNCS a été mise en évidence. Pour l’expérience de TS, les résultats étaient comparables pour les deux groupes, suggérant que les mécanismes impliqués dans la régulation de la douleur ne subiraient pas l’effet de l’âge de la même manière. Pour l’étude de l’épaisseur corticale, on y trouve une diminution globale de l’épaisseur corticale liée à l’âge, mais aussi une corrélation de l’analgésie par la HNCS avec l’inhibition cognitive et également, une relation des deux avec l’épaisseur corticale du cortex orbitofrontal (OFC) latéral gauche, suggérant la possibilité d’une existence d’un réseau neuronal au moins partiellement commun du contrôle inhibiteur descendant sensoriel et cognitif. Ce travail montre que l’effet de l’âge sur les mécanismes centraux de la régulation de la douleur est loin d’être uniforme. Également, il montre une corrélation entre la modulation endogène de la douleur et l’inhibition cognitive, ces deux processus seraient associés à une même région cérébrale. Ces résultats pourraient contribuer à identifier d’autres méthodes thérapeutiques, ouvrant ainsi une nouvelle avenue vers d’autres options dans la prise en charge des douleurs chroniques chez les personnes vieillissantes. / Elderly have to deal daily with chronic pain. The diffuse inhibitory descending controls (DNIC) are much involved in the pain control. It was shown that the DNIC recruitment was lower in elderly than in young population, using the analgesic effect of the heterotopic noxious counter stimulation (HNCS), a protocol allowing testing the efficiency of the DNIC. However, the studies assessing the central sensitization by the temporal summation of pain after repetitive stimuli have reported mixed results, the effect of age is still unclear. In addition, there is an age-related decline of an important component, which has an influence on pain perception, the cognitive resources and especially the cognitive inhibition. The goal of this work is to understand the underling mechanisms of the chronic pain related to the normal aging, which can leads to a new therapeutic perspectives. First, the recruitment of the CIDN was compared between healthy young and elderly participants using the HNCS, and the central sensitization was tested using TS. The sural nerve electric shock stimulation was chosen, because it allows us to have two measures, the pain rating and the nociceptive spinal reflex (RIII), an indicative measure of the nociception. Our participants were also invited to participate in a cognitive task (the Stroop), to assess the cognitive inhibition. Second, the efficacy of the CIDN and the cognitive inhibition in elderly and young participants was tested, but this time in a magnetic resonance imaging session. We have wanted to test the association between these two-psychophysics measures, with the cortical thickness of the regions involved into these two processes, and the effect of the normal aging on them. The results have showed a less recruitment of the DNIC in elderly in the HNCS experiment. Also, the elderly have performed less than young in the cognitive inhibition. In addition, a correlation between the cognitive inhibition and the modulation of the RIII-reflex was found. For the TS experiment, no difference was shown between the two groups, suggesting that aging may affect differently the mechanisms involved in endogenous pain modulation. The morphometric study has showed a global diminution of the cortical thickness with aging. Furthermore, there was an association, between the HNCS analgesia and the performance in cognitive inhibition, and between theses two processes and the cortical thickness of the left lateral OFC. These results suggest an eventual existence of at least a partial neuronal common network for the sensorial and cognitive descending inhibitory control. This thesis has showed that the effect of normal aging on the central mechanisms of the pain regulation might be not uniform. Also, on one hand a correlation between the endogenous modulation of pain and cognitive inhibition was reported, and on the other hand that these two processes would be related to the same cortical area. Together, these findings would help to develop new therapeutic methods and offer more options to the management of pain in the elderly.